Battle of Lissa

July 20th, Adriatic Sea.

Lissa Island was the Austro-Hungarian Empire's naval base in the Adriatic Sea.

After declaring war on Austria, Italy was eager to find a breakthrough on the battlefield, as the combat effectiveness of the Italian Army was notoriously questionable.

However, the passage from Venetia into Austrian territory was not suitable for large-scale troop movements. Furthermore, the Austrian front-line commander had previously voluntarily withdrawn from the difficult-to-defend Venetia, leaving their main forces intact and utilizing terrain advantages to repel multiple attacks from the Kingdom of Italy.

The geographical disadvantage did indeed provide an excuse for the army, and the Italian Army narrowly escaped a difficult situation this time.

Finding it difficult to break through the Austrian Empire's defensive lines on land, the Kingdom of Italy turned to attacking Austria by sea.

At this time, the Italian Navy was recognized as one of the strongest navies in the world, possessing 12 ironclads, including the new fast ships Italia and Dandolo, as well as the new turreted warship Affondatore. Additionally, they had 16 wooden-hulled steam warships.

In contrast, the Austro-Hungarian Navy had only 7 ironclads, with the rest being wooden warships.

With 12 ironclads against 7, the Italian Navy commander, Admiral C. C. Persano, decided to launch a direct attack on the Austrian naval base at Lissa Island.

On June 16th, a squadron of 11 armored ships, 5 cruisers, and 3 gunboats, led by Admiral Persano, set sail from Ancona. Their objective was to capture Lissa Island, an Austro-Hungarian naval base with fortifications, by amphibious assault. The island had 9 permanent fortifications, 11 artillery companies totaling 88 cannons, and a garrison of nearly 3,000 troops.

The attacks on Lissa Island on July 18th and 19th were unsuccessful. The Italian forces, lacking necessary intelligence on the garrison, encountered resistance from the Austrian forces.

The defending Austro-Hungarian forces on Lissa Island fought fiercely, damaging the Italian ironclad Formidabile with artillery fire.

As the Italian fleet prepared to launch another attack, the Austro-Hungarian fleet arrived at dawn on July 20th.

When the Italian fleet set sail, the Austro-Hungarian commander, Tegetthoff, was 165 nautical miles away in Porto.

Upon learning of the attack on Lissa, he initially dismissed it as a mere feint.

He found it hard to believe that the Italians would undertake such a risky operation, as an amphibious assault lacked the element of surprise and failed to first secure control of the sea.

However, Admiral C. C. Persano would soon learn that reality is often bolder than imagination.

As the Italians launched their full assault, Tegetthoff sailed towards Lissa. Upon reaching the waters near Lissa, he ordered his fleet to prepare for battle. Realizing his disadvantage in firepower, he adopted an easily exploitable formation: three columns arranged in a "V" formation. The first "V" was composed of his 7 ironclads, led by the flagship Ferdinand Max.

The second "V" consisted of fast wooden-hulled ships and a coastal defense ship, led by the Kaiser.

He arranged the remaining smaller vessels in a third "V" formation.

Meanwhile, the opposing Italian Navy commander, Persano, had bombarded the fortress batteries on Lissa Island for two days without silencing the 88 small-caliber guns on shore. This resulted in heavy casualties for the Italian fleet.

One Italian ironclad had lost its combat capability, most of its ammunition was expended, and it had only two days' worth of fuel remaining.

However, on the morning of July 20th, Persano resumed his attack. As he was bombarding Lissa's batteries and preparing to land troops, the lookout suddenly reported that the Austro-Hungarian fleet was approaching from the northwest.

In a panic, Persano hastily formed his ironclads into a column and steamed across the front of the Austro-Hungarian formation.

At this critical moment, Persano, in his haste, moved his battle ensign from the Italia to the Affondatore, which was outside the battle formation.

This created a large gap between the three leading Italian warships and the rest of the fleet.

The Austrian commander Tegetthoff seized the opportunity and immediately led his vanguard formation of ironclads through the gap, while his wooden ships charged towards Persano's wooden ships and remaining ironclads.

The battle quickly devolved into a melee, with ship movements partially obscured by smoke. The Affondatore twice attempted to ram the wooden Kaiser but failed. A shell from the Kaiser grazed the Dandolo, but the Kaiser itself caught fire under enemy gunfire and was eventually driven out of the fight by the Affondatore. Simultaneously, Austro-Hungarian naval gunfire set an Italian ironclad ablaze.

Tegetthoff's flagship's ramming of the Italia was the most spectacular event of the battle.

As the Ferdinand Max searched through the battle smoke, it collided with the broadside of the Italia. The Italian warship lost directional control.

Furthermore, its bow was blocked by another Austro-Hungarian warship. As it retreated, the Maximilien rammed its broadside at full speed, causing it to list heavily to starboard.

As the Maximilien slowly backed away, the Italia righted itself, then due to its own momentum and the force of several tons of seawater pouring into its breach, it listed to port. As it capsized and sank, the untrained but spirited sailors aboard cheered for their King.

The sinking of the Italia ended the battle, and the Italian fleet retreated westward. Due to damage to several Austro-Hungarian warships and their continued numerical disadvantage, Tegetthoff did not pursue. Regardless, he had completed his mission of saving Lissa and returned to Austria as a national hero.

Meanwhile, Persano was relieved of his command after the war.

The Battle of Lissa was a great victory for the Austro-Hungarian Navy, completely lifting the siege of Lissa. The Italian fleet suffered heavy damage in the battle, losing three ironclads and over 1,000 officers and men.

This first battle between steam-powered ironclads was noteworthy. Navies worldwide studied this battle in depth regarding tactics, armament, and ship design.

The role of ironclads gained significant attention from various countries during this naval engagement, marking the transition of naval warfare from the Age of Sail to the Age of Steam Ironclads.

Following this battle, the Italian fleet retreated. The reasons for Italy's defeat included poor reconnaissance, lack of a battle plan, ineffective communication, and Admiral Persano's indecisiveness.

The Italian sailors were not well-trained, their officers lacked initiative, and their commander, Admiral C. C. Persano, seemed to have no understanding of his fleet.

Compared to Persano's dozen ironclads, the Austro-Hungarian Empire had only 7 ironclads, all of which were older steam-powered fast ships.

Their wooden-hulled ships primarily consisted of one steam-powered ship, the Kaiser, five screw-propelled fast ships, and one coastal defense ship. On each wooden-hulled ship, only a small portion of the cannons were rifled. In fact, the Austro-Hungarian firepower was less than half of Italy's.

However, their inestimable advantage lay in their fleet commander, Rear Admiral B. von Tegetthoff. His soldiers were well-trained, possessed initiative, and were proficient in their professions – all qualities lacking in the Italian commanders.

As for the Italian commander Persano, not only did he disregard the importance of intelligence, but he also lacked professional knowledge and was stubbornly arrogant.

Persano initially ignored orders to "clear the Adriatic of enemies," merely making pointless movements of ships from the Ancona base. During this time, he did not train his untrained gunners.

Finally, the King of Italy issued a mandatory order: "Any action taken against enemy fortresses or fleets is considered potentially victorious."

Driven by this order, Persano made the strategic decision to capture Lissa, a small island belonging to the Austro-Hungarian Empire.

In this naval battle, Rear Admiral von Tegetthoff led the reinforcement of the garrison troops.

The Austro-Hungarian fleet launched a sudden attack, concentrating its artillery fire on the central ships of the Italian fleet. However, the artillery duel between the armored ships proved ineffective.

Consequently, the Austro-Hungarian flagship, the armored ship Archduke Ferdinand Max, rammed the Italian armored ship Re d'Italia. The latter, along with four hundred crew members, was sunk, thus deciding the outcome of the naval battle.

Another Italian warship, the Palestro, caught fire after being hit by artillery, lost its combat capability, and eventually exploded.

In conclusion, the differing capabilities of the commanders on both sides led to an unexpected outcome, with the seemingly powerful Italian Navy instead falling into disarray.

Wilhelm von Tegetthoff's "V" formation tactic also became famous with the Battle of Lissa.

Later, the Beiyang Fleet attempted to replicate Austria's "V" formation tactic, but the results were unsatisfactory.

Of course, the Battle of the Yalu River was completely different from the Battle of Lissa. The Austro-Hungarian Navy was well-trained, while the Italian Navy's training had not kept pace due to its rapid expansion. In the Battle of the Yalu River, the Beiyang Fleet, lacking training and ammunition, faced the well-trained Imperial Japanese Navy.

Furthermore, in the Battle of Lissa, the Austro-Hungarian fleet's ramming tactics were repeatedly successful, thus reviving this ancient tactic. After this, until the early 20th century, most countries' warships were equipped with rams.

The Battle of Lissa was the first major naval battle between steam ironclads. The battle proved that artillery was no longer effective against armored warships, and that steam-powered ships possessed high maneuverability, allowing them to quickly change into various battle formations.

And Wilhelm von Tegetthoff, an Austro-Hungarian Admiral, as the victor of the Battle of Lissa, became one of the greatest naval commanders of the 19th century.