Chapter Summaries

General Ivanov faced mounting Russian losses as the Austro-Hungarian defenses held and the German 8th Army Corps drove the 4th Army Corps toward collapse. With no reinforcements available for ten days, he chose to press on and ordered a breakthrough within three days, leaving the Russian army with no way back.

• General Ivanov learned that Russian forces had failed to break through the Austro-Hungarian defenses and that the 4th Army Corps had requested reinforcements.
• The adjutant reported that German forces had captured Chełm, routed the 22nd Infantry Corps, and were threatening Zamość.
• General Ivanov learned that no spare troops were available and ordered General Dimitriev to hold out until the 13th Army Corps arrived in ten days.
• General Ivanov rejected retreat, fearing the consequences from Tsar Nicholas II, and decided to continue the battle.
• General Ivanov ordered the 3rd, 8th, and 11th Army Corps to intensify their attacks and break through the Austro-Hungarian defenses within three days.

German forces under General François and Colonel Rommel launched a surprise artillery bombardment of Lviv before the Russian garrison could prepare. General Dimitriev ordered his troops to defend the city and requested reinforcements as the attack began.

• General François and Colonel Rommel approached Lviv with the 11th Corps and part of the 8th Armored Division, having avoided detection overnight.
• General François ordered the artillery to deploy and fire on Lviv, while Rommel prepared more than eighty operational tanks for the attack.
• At six-thirty, German artillery opened fire with hundreds of guns, catching the sleeping Russian garrison completely off guard.
• General Dimitriev learned that German artillery was bombarding the city and ordered his troops into defensive positions.
• General Dimitriev sent a telegram to Area Army Headquarters requesting reinforcements.

German artillery and bombers devastated the Russian defenses at Lviv, while Russian commanders ordered their troops to hold the vital supply center. General Ivanov learned of the attack and insisted that Lviv must not fall, leaving the city under bombardment as reinforcements were requested.

• German artillery shattered Russian troops and defenses inside and around Lviv.
• More than a hundred bombers from the 8th Air Corps bombed the Russian defensive line, killing many soldiers and collapsing the positions.
• Lieutenant General Sheremetev ordered the Russian 34th Infantry Corps to prepare to resist the German attack.
• General Ivanov received word that Lviv was under attack and that General Dimitriev had requested reinforcements.
• General Ivanov ordered a Telegram to Dimitriev, insisting that Lviv must be held.

General Ivanov ordered the 3rd Caucasian Army to leave the Austrian front and reinforce Lviv, the only help he could spare as German forces attacked the city. Lieutenant General François launched a tank-led assault on the battered Russian defenses, leaving the Russian soldiers struggling to stop the advance.

• General Ivanov learned that German aircraft and artillery were attacking Lviv and ordered General Dimitriev to hold the city at all costs.
• The adjutant told General Ivanov that all reserves had been committed against the Austrians, so Ivanov ordered the 3rd Caucasian Army to withdraw and reinforce Lviv.
• Lieutenant General François ordered the attack, and Colonel Rommel led more than eighty tanks and the 32nd and 33rd Infantry Divisions against the Russian positions.
• Russian soldiers rushed back into their shattered defenses, while soldiers of the 22nd Infantry Corps panicked at the sight of German tanks.
• German tanks destroyed Russian firing positions with their cannons as machine-gun fire failed to stop them, and one tank advanced to within a hundred meters of the defensive line.

German tanks smashed through the Russian defenses outside Lviv and drove into the city, where Russian resistance collapsed. General Dimitriev fled toward Stryi, leaving Lviv and its supplies in German hands.

• A German tank destroyed two Russian heavy machine guns, crushed the defenses, and helped German infantry break through the outer line.
• Lieutenant General François ordered tens of thousands of German soldiers to advance on Lviv in four columns.
• General Dimitriev learned that the outer defenses had fallen and ordered Russian troops in the city to hold their positions.
• German tanks and infantry overwhelmed the weakened Russian resistance as soldiers fled or surrendered.
• At five in the afternoon, General Dimitriev led his remaining troops in a breakout toward Stryi, and the Germans captured Lviv and its supplies.

Lieutenant General François’s forces captured Lviv, destroyed the Russian 4th Army Corps, and seized its supply depots. At Austrian headquarters, Oscar and Marshal von Hotzendorf learned of the victory and believed the Russian Southwestern Front Army would soon be forced to retreat.

• Lieutenant General François and Colonel Rommel surveyed Lviv after German forces took control of the city and routed the Russian troops.
• A major general reported that the Russians had left vast stores of food, ammunition, and other supplies intact in Lviv.
• François ordered headquarters and the Crown Prince to be informed of the victory and went to inspect the captured depots.
• Oscar told Marshal von Hotzendorf that German forces were attacking Lviv while the Austrian army remained locked in fierce fighting with the Russians.
• Brigadier General Manstein reported that François had captured Lviv, wiped out the main force of the Russian 4th Army Corps, and seized its supplies.
• Oscar and von Hotzendorf celebrated the victory and concluded that the Russians could not hold out much longer.

After the Russian Southwestern Front Army suffered devastating losses and the 4th Army Corps was destroyed, General Ivanov decided to retreat. Grand Duke Nicholas approved, and Ivanov ordered the remaining corps to withdraw toward Ukraine and Belarus.

• An officer reported that the Germans had captured Zamość, adding to the 4th Army Corps’ defeat at Lviv.
• General Ivanov concluded that his remaining forces could not defeat the German-Austrian Allied Forces and sent Grand Duke Nicholas a request to retreat.
• Grand Duke Nicholas approved the withdrawal and ordered Ivanov to save as many troops as possible.
• General Ivanov ordered the 3rd, 8th, and 11th Army Corps to break contact with the Austrians and retreat into Ukraine and Belarus.

After the Russian forces withdrew overnight, Oscar persuaded Baron Marshal von Heitzenforf to pursue them and destroy as many troops as possible. When Austrian scouts found the Russian positions abandoned on October 12, the marshal ordered a full-scale pursuit.

• General Ruszky ordered the remaining Russian 3rd Army Corps to withdraw, while the Russian 8th and 11th Army Corps also retreated under General Ivanov's orders.
• Oscar urged Baron Marshal von Heitzenforf to pursue the retreating Russians and inflict further losses before Russia completed its mobilization.
• Baron Marshal von Heitzenforf agreed to send a probing force the following morning and launch a full-scale attack if the Russians did not resist.
• On October 12, Austrian divisions attacked the Russian positions and found them deserted, with weapons and ammunition left behind.
• Baron Marshal von Heitzenforf ordered the Austrian 2nd, 3rd, and 4th Army Corps to pursue the fleeing Russian troops.

The German-Austrian Allied Forces pursued the retreating Russian Army, while shortages and German air attacks drove Russian units into a rout. General Ivanov ordered his troops to march faster and seize food, but Austrian forces caught up as the Russians slowed to gather provisions.

• General Böhm-Ermolli ordered the Austrian 2nd Army Corps to pursue the fleeing Russians, and the Austrian 3rd and 4th Army Corps joined the chase.
• The German 8th Army Corps moved south from Lviv to seize towns and block the Russian retreat.
• General Ivanov ordered the Russian troops to march faster and requisition food, including from Ukrainians once they crossed into Russian territory.
• German bombers and fighters attacked a Russian column, killing troops and further disrupting the retreat.
• Russian units collapsed under the pursuit and air attacks, and Austrian forces caught up as the Russians slowed to gather supplies.

The Russian 8th Army Corps attacked the German defenses at Belzani but failed to break through before the Austrian 3rd Army Corps encircled it. More than a hundred thousand Russians surrendered, while the battered Russian corps retreated in disarray and the German-Austrian Allied Forces claimed victory.

• General Brusilov ordered the Russian 8th Army Corps to attack Belzani, where the German 32nd Infantry Division repelled repeated assaults.
• The Austrian 3rd Army Corps completed its encirclement of the Russian 8th Army Corps on October 15.
• More than a hundred thousand encircled Russian troops surrendered on October 16 after Brusilov broke out.
• The Russian 3rd Army Corps lost most of its force while retreating under German-Austrian pursuit.
• The Russian 11th Army Corps escaped back to Russia, and the German-Austrian Allied Forces had wiped out more than a million Russian troops in the battle.

After the Southwestern Front lost nearly a million troops, Grand Duke Nicholas reported the disaster truthfully to Nicholas II, who confronted his generals and officials about Russia’s losses. The chapter left Nicholas II considering a halt to offensives until newly mobilized forces were ready.

• Grand Duke Nicholas read General Ivanov’s report that the Southwestern Front had been reduced from 1.2 million troops to 250,000.
• Grand Duke Nicholas told his generals that Russia had little hope of victory and ordered them to report the losses honestly to Nicholas II.
• Nicholas II read the telegrams and demanded to know how Russia could continue fighting after losing nearly two million troops.
• Minister of War Sukhomlinov advised Nicholas II to avoid further offensives until newly mobilized forces were ready.

Nicholas II rejected making peace with Germany and approved Grand Duke Nicholas's plan to trade territory for time, rebuilding Russia's western fronts while seeking foreign arms. The chapter ended with orders to reconstitute the Northwestern and Southwestern Fronts, each with 1.5 million men.

• Sukhomlinov estimated that new Russian units needed a year to become combat-ready, then said they could do it in six months if Britain and France supplied weapons and equipment.
• Nicholas II ordered Izvolsky to press Britain and France for munitions, leaving them to solve the problem of delivering supplies to Russian ports.
• Prime Minister Vyacheslav Plehve urged Nicholas II to make peace with Germany and warned that unrest threatened the Empire, but Nicholas rejected peace and ordered troops to suppress opposition.
• Sukhomlinov relayed Grand Duke Nicholas's proposal to contract Russia's defensive lines, surrender western territory temporarily, and use the time to reorganize and arm the army.
• Nicholas II approved trading space for time and ordered the Northwestern Front Army and Southwestern Front rebuilt to 1.5 million men each.

After the Russian Southwestern Front Army was nearly destroyed, Oscar refused Austria-Hungary’s request to continue the eastern offensive and prepared to move German forces back to the Western Front. Germany’s immediate eastern crisis eased, while Austria-Hungary rebuilt its forces and pursued its own ambitions.

• Oscar told Baron Marshal von Heitzenforf that he would take the 8th Army Corps back to Germany, but Heitzenforf urged him to attack Russia while it was weakened.
• Oscar rejected the proposed offensive, citing the approaching Russian winter, Russia’s remaining manpower and strategic depth, and the stalemate on the Western Front.
• Oscar told Heitzenforf that the 8th Army Corps would return to Germany to help seek a breakthrough against the Anglo-French Allied Forces.
• In late October, Oscar left Uzhhorod as the 8th Army Corps headed north to East Prussia, while the newly formed 9th Army Corps moved into the Kingdom of Poland.
• The Austro-Hungarian Empire replenished its Eastern Front forces and prepared to deploy another army group, bringing its planned force there to four army groups and 1.2 million men.

After the Austro-Hungarian Empire’s victory over Russia, Crown Prince Karl pushed to exploit the weakened Russian forces and seize territory without Germany. Franz Joseph I delayed a decision, while Karl remained convinced his plan would strengthen the empire and win the emperor’s approval.

• Baron Marshal von Heitzenforf reported that Austro-Hungarian and German forces had destroyed most of the Russian Southwestern Front Army, adding to Germany’s earlier victory over the Northwestern Front Army.
• Franz Joseph I and Archduke Friedrich praised Germany’s military strength, while Crown Prince Karl resented the empire’s subordinate position and wanted to stand equal to Oskar.
• Crown Prince Karl urged the Austro-Hungarian Empire to continue its Eastern Front offensive and seize Russian territory while Russia was weakened.
• Baron Marshal von Heitzenforf explained that Oskar’s 8th Army Corps would return to Germany for the Western Front, and Karl argued that acting without Germany would let Austria keep all the gains.
• Franz Joseph I postponed his decision, while Archduke Friedrich and Baron Marshal von Heitzenforf recognized that the other leaders were eager to continue the offensive.
• Crown Prince Karl privately convinced himself that his plan would strengthen the Austro-Hungarian Empire and earn Franz Joseph I’s support.

Crown Prince Karl persuaded Archduke Friedrich and Baron Marshal von Heitzenforf to support another Austro-Hungarian attack on Russia despite their concerns about German support and Russian strength. Emperor Joseph Franz I approved the offensive, but the Austrian military soon suffered another defeat without German assistance.

• Crown Prince Karl urged Archduke Friedrich and Baron Marshal von Heitzenforf to seize the chance to gain territory by attacking Russia.
• Archduke Friedrich and Baron Marshal von Heitzenforf warned that Russia remained powerful and that the previous victory depended heavily on German support.
• Baron Marshal von Heitzenforf proposed a cautious attack, and he told Archduke Friedrich that Your Highness Oskar had not opposed an offensive.
• Archduke Friedrich agreed to persuade Emperor Joseph Franz I, who approved the plan two days later.
• The Austrian military attacked Russia without German assistance and soon suffered another defeat.

Sir Edward Grey saw London’s shortages and tried to reassure his secretary that Britain would win, though he privately feared the worsening war. At a meeting with Asquith, Richard Haldane, and Churchill, he confronted the danger posed by Russia’s crushing losses and the resulting pressure on the Western Front.

• Sir Edward Grey drove through a depleted London and told his secretary that Britain would defeat Germany, though his confidence was only an act.
• Sir Edward Grey went to the Prime Minister’s residence to discuss Russia’s defeat with Asquith, Richard Haldane, and Churchill.
• Asquith said Russia had lost two million troops, leaving Germany free to shift its main forces to the Western Front.
• Richard Haldane urged Britain to press Russia to keep attacking on the Eastern Front, arguing that it still had vast reserves of manpower.

British leaders agreed to help Russia arm and train its forces so Russia would continue fighting Germany on the Eastern Front. Britain and France arranged to supply munitions and lend Russia twenty million Pounds Sterling, leaving Russia expected to launch an offensive the following spring.

• Sir Edward Grey explained that Russia lacked the weapons to equip its mobilized troops and had requested foreign munitions.
• Richard Haldane warned that Britain also lacked weapons, but Prime Minister Asquith and Churchill argued that Russia had to keep fighting to tie down German forces.
• Churchill and Sir Edward Grey proposed ordering munitions from the Americans and having them transport the supplies to Russia.
• Asquith agreed to make the aid conditional on Russia training its troops quickly and launching an offensive against Germany the following spring.
• Churchill secured agreement that France would provide half the munitions, and proposed a loan to strengthen Russia's resolve.
• Britain and France decided to supply enough munitions to help Russia arm two million troops and lend Russia twenty million Pounds Sterling.

As Russia faced worsening hardship and military defeat, Ulyanov and the Bolshevik leaders planned an uprising in St. Petersburg with financial and material support from Germany. Ulyanov decided they would act while the city’s defenses were weakened.

• Ulyanov argued that the Tsar’s unpopularity and Russia’s catastrophic losses made an uprising likely to succeed.
• Joseph said the Russian Guard 1st Army Corps had been sent to the front, leaving St. Petersburg poorly defended, while Kamenev warned that rebellion could fail.
• Joseph revealed that Germany had provided two million marks and weapons for the uprising, prompting Kamenev to question accepting aid from an enemy.
• Ulyanov said the Bolsheviks would use Germany’s support and then rely on it no longer.
• Ulyanov ordered the Bolsheviks to proceed with the revolution, and Joseph and the other leaders pledged their support.

In November 1914, Nicholas II ordered the arrest and execution of Bolshevik leaders and strike organizers, but the repression fueled workers’ anger. After troops fired on a Nevsky Prospect demonstration, Ulyanov and Joseph launched an armed uprising in St. Petersburg, where insurgents seized key positions by nightfall.

• Bolshevik-led strikes spread across St. Petersburg, prompting Pyotr Arkadyevich Stolypin to warn Nicholas II that the capital was in turmoil.
• Nicholas II ordered the police to arrest the rebels and authorized military suppression; on November 5, police arrested over a hundred Bolsheviks and organizers, and dozens were hanged without trial.
• Ulyanov and other Bolshevik leaders called on workers and civilians to take up arms after the executions, and tens of thousands gathered on Nevsky Prospect to demand the prisoners’ release.
• Troops blocked the march, gunfire broke out, and the Russian army’s machine guns killed many workers before the crowd retreated.
• Ulyanov and Joseph decided to use the army’s attack to overthrow Nicholas II, and St. Petersburg workers began an armed uprising that afternoon, capturing police stations and armories and attacking government institutions.

Bolshevik-led insurgents defeated Tsarist forces and seized St. Petersburg. Nicholas II and his family were captured and secretly detained as foreign powers watched the upheaval.

• Nicholas II rejected Plehve’s proposal to negotiate and ordered Sukhomlinov to send troops into St. Petersburg to crush the uprising.
• Bolshevik-infiltrated recruits joined the insurgent workers, and after a night of fighting the Tsar’s loyal forces lost control of the city.
• Ulyanov ordered Joseph to attack the Winter Palace and capture Nicholas II’s family.
• The insurgents took the Winter Palace on November 8 and found Nicholas II’s family hiding in its basement.
• Joseph’s trusted subordinates secretly transported the family outside St. Petersburg for detention while the world reacted to the successful uprising.