Chapter Summaries

After becoming Prime Minister, Churchill prepared Britain for a German attack and secured George V’s support for homeland defense. He left the king backing his plan to resist the Germans, with Canada as a fallback if Britain fell.

• Churchill took office, ordered the army to expand and train, and directed defenses to be built across Britain.
• Churchill told George V that Britain had lost the naval battle because its ships sacrificed protection for speed and firepower, while German ships were more resilient.
• Churchill explained that German aircraft and tactics had helped destroy British ships and frighten France and Italy into surrendering.
• George V agreed that Britain should develop aircraft and promised Churchill full support for resisting a German invasion.
• Churchill told George V to prepare to flee to Canada with the Empire’s wealth if Britain lost, so resistance could continue from there.

In Toulouse, President Poincaré and the French Cabinet waited for news of the Combined Fleet’s battle with Germany, hoping victory might save France. After learning the fleet had been defeated, they faced the prospect of ending the war as German forces advanced south.

• President Poincaré asked Secretary Victor Gagnour about France’s chances, and Gagnour warned that the Combined Fleet was unlikely to match the German Navy’s skill and quality.
• A naval officer reported that the Combined Fleet had been defeated, with all its Capital Ships sunk or captured and little damage inflicted on Germany.
• Prime Minister René Viviani told President Poincaré that the fleet’s defeat had destroyed France’s last hope.
• Foreign Minister Théophile Delcassé urged the Cabinet to end the war and limit further losses.
• Minister of War Alexander Millerand warned that the French Army could not stop the German advance and that Toulouse might soon be reached.

With France defeated, President Poincaré and his government decided to seek peace with Germany before the homeland was occupied. They prepared to negotiate over colonies, territory, and reparations, appointing Théophile Viviani as France’s plenipotentiary.

• President Poincaré and Prime Minister René Viviani agreed that France had to seek peace before defeat became surrender.
• Minister Théophile Delcassé and Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Ribert warned that Germany would demand colonies, French territory, and heavy reparations.
• René Viviani argued that France should give up its colonies if necessary to preserve the homeland, while Poincaré insisted they defend French territory and minimize reparations.
• The French government appointed Foreign Minister Théophile Viviani as plenipotentiary for peace negotiations with Germany.

King Vittorio Emanuele III and Prime Minister Antonio Salandra anxiously awaited news of the naval battle against Germany, which Italy hoped to win or use to secure a dignified peace. Vittorio regretted Italy’s decision to join the Allied Powers, but Salandra reassured him that the choice had seemed beneficial at the time.

• Vittorio Emanuele III prayed for the Combined Fleet to defeat the German Navy and regretted that he could not pray at the Vatican.
• Vittorio blamed former Prime Minister Giovanni Giolitti for Italy’s decision to leave the Allied Powers, overlooking his own responsibility.
• Antonio Salandra told Vittorio that Francesco was waiting at the Naval Ministry and would report as soon as news arrived.
• Vittorio asked whether Italy could defeat Germany, and Salandra said the outcome was uncertain but victory was possible if fortune favored them.
• Salandra defended Italy’s decision by saying Britain, France, and Russia had seemed certain to defeat Germany, and Vittorio accepted that explanation.

After the Combined Fleet suffered a crushing defeat, Francesco reported the news to King Vittorio Emanuele III and Prime Minister Antonio Salandra. They decided to seek peace with Germany and appointed Paul Borselli to negotiate, knowing Italy might have to pay a heavy price to survive.

• Francesco received General Paul's telegram confirming the Combined Fleet's defeat by the German Navy.
• Francesco rushed to the royal palace and told Vittorio Emanuele III and Antonio Salandra that the navy had been crushed.
• Antonio Salandra urged the King to focus on preserving the Kingdom of Italy rather than regretting their defeat.
• Vittorio Emanuele III summoned Foreign Minister Paul Borselli and appointed him to lead peace negotiations with Germany.
• Paul Borselli warned that Germany would demand a tremendous price, and the King and Prime Minister accepted that Italy might have to make major concessions.

After France and Italy sought peace following Germany’s naval victory, Oscar ordered negotiations in Berlin and set out to extract sweeping reparations, territory, colonies, and military restrictions from France. Bülow and Wachth accepted his plan as Germany prepared to negotiate from its position of strength.

• Wacht reported that the French and Italian ambassadors had proposed peace talks with Germany after the naval defeat.
• Oscar agreed to receive French and Italian representatives in Berlin and said the defeated nations should pay for Germany’s wartime costs.
• Wachth asked about Germany’s bottom line, and Oscar demanded at least fifty billion Marks from France, all its overseas colonies, territory north of the Loire, and strict limits on its armed forces.
• Bülow questioned whether France would accept terms that could cost it its country, but Oscar argued that France would submit or face occupation and partition.
• Bülow and Wachth agreed to try Oscar’s proposed terms, trusting Germany’s advantage in the negotiations.

Oscar set Germany’s priorities for peace negotiations with France and Italy while planning to limit the Austro-Hungarian Empire’s gains and secure German interests in the Mediterranean. He left Sicily and Corsica as nonnegotiable demands, backed by the threat of military occupation.

• Oscar ordered that peace talks with France come first and talks with Italy wait until Austro-Hungarian representatives arrived.
• Wachth asked whether Germany should support Austro-Hungarian claims to former Italian territories, and Oscar and Bülow said Germany must prevent its ally from gaining too much.
• Oscar demanded that Italy pay at least twenty billion marks in reparations, transfer its overseas colonies, and compensate Germany for losses involving Libyan oil fields.
• Oscar sought Sicily and Corsica as German Mediterranean bases, said Sardinia could be abandoned, and threatened to occupy the islands if Italy refused.

At Schönbrunn Palace, Franz Joseph I and his ministers discussed the German Navy’s victory and the Austro-Hungarian Empire’s interests in the coming peace negotiations. Germany invited the Empire to send a delegation to peace talks with Italy in Berlin, angering Crown Prince Karl.

• Admiral Anton Haus reported that Germany had crushed the British, French, and Italian Combined Fleet, and Franz Joseph I ordered congratulations to Wilhelm III.
• Crown Prince Karl warned that German naval power threatened the Empire and urged greater investment in its navy; Franz Joseph I agreed resources should be shifted toward it.
• Mario Weber and Crown Prince Karl discussed protecting Austro-Hungarian gains in the peace settlements, while Franz Joseph I cautioned against antagonizing Germany.
• Baron von Berchtold announced that Italy had requested peace talks and Germany had invited an Austro-Hungarian delegation to Berlin.
• Crown Prince Karl angrily objected that Germany had chosen Berlin without consulting the Austro-Hungarian Empire.

Crown Prince Karl resented Germany for excluding the Austro-Hungarian Empire from peace talks, but Franz Joseph I sent him to Berlin to build ties with Wilhelm III rather than confront Germany. As the French and Italian delegations prepared to negotiate, their foreign ministers secretly met to consider joining forces against German demands.

• Crown Prince Karl complained that Italy had negotiated with Germany without involving the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and Franz Joseph I warned him against challenging Germany's superior strength.
• Franz Joseph I ordered Karl and Baron von Berchtold to travel to Berlin and prioritize establishing a good relationship with Wilhelm III.
• Karl learned that French representatives had also gone to Berlin and angrily accused Germany of keeping the spoils for itself.
• German Foreign Minister von Kiderlen-Wachth hosted a banquet for the French and Italian delegations before peace talks began.
• Théophile Delcassé and Paul Borselli met secretly and discussed forming an offensive and defensive alliance to reduce Germany's demands.

Théophile Delcassé and Paul Borselli agreed that France and Italy should negotiate firmly with Germany, despite having little leverage after their defeat. Germany began peace talks with France first on May 24, 1915, leaving Italy to negotiate later.

• Paul Borselli blamed Théophile Delcassé for persuading Italy to join the Allied Powers, while Delcassé rejected responsibility for Italy’s defeat.
• Théophile Delcassé proposed that France and Italy coordinate to reduce the terms Germany imposed on them, and Paul Borselli agreed to try.
• Germany insisted on negotiating with France before Italy and told both delegations they could leave if they objected.
• France and Italy accepted Germany’s arrangement because they could not risk renewed fighting.
• Von Kiderlen-Wächter opened peace talks with the French delegation at the German Foreign Ministry on May 24, 1915.

Wachth and Théophile Delcassé began peace negotiations after France’s defeat, but Wachth imposed a three-day deadline and demanded enormous reparations. Delcassé offered twenty billion Marks after rejecting the demand for one hundred billion, leaving the negotiations at an impasse.

• Théophile Delcassé called for peace, and Wachth agreed that Germany did not want the war to continue.
• Wachth gave the negotiations three days to reach an agreement before he would declare them broken down.
• Wachth said France must compensate Germany for the war and demanded one hundred billion Marks.
• Théophile Delcassé protested that France could not afford the sum and offered twenty billion Marks instead.

Wachth negotiated Germany’s harsh peace terms with Théophile Delcassé, settling France’s reparations at 55 billion marks and demanding all French colonies. France agreed to transfer its colonies, and Wachth then demanded French territory north of the Loire River and Corsica.

• Wachth demanded 100 billion marks in reparations, and Théophile Delcassé argued that France should not pay five times what Russia had paid.
• Wachth lowered Germany’s demand, and after prolonged haggling, Wachth and Théophile Delcassé settled on 55 billion marks.
• Wachth warned that Germany would continue its offensive if France rejected the reparations terms.
• Wachth demanded that France transfer all its overseas colonies to Germany, and Théophile Delcassé agreed after failing to retain the African colonies.
• Wachth demanded that France cede all territory north of the Loire River and Corsica to Germany.

Théophile Delcassé rejected Germany’s demands for reparations, colonies, and half of France’s territory, including Paris, while von Giedlen Wachth threatened to destroy France if it refused. Delcassé left without authority to accept the terms, but admitted he would report them to his government as Germany prepared to resume its offensive.

• Théophile Delcassé protested that Germany’s demands would strip France of its most prosperous regions and reduce it to a powerless nation.
• Wachth argued that Germany could conquer France outright and threatened to seize its wealth and colonies by force if negotiations failed.
• Théophile Delcassé condemned Wachth’s threats to kill French resisters, but firmly refused to accept the terms.
• Wachth declared negotiations broken down and said the Imperial Army would continue its offensive until France was destroyed.
• Théophile Delcassé said he lacked authority to accept Germany’s terms and would report them to his government, though he expected it to refuse.

Wachth presented Germany’s final terms to Théophile Delcassé, including strict limits on France’s military and a German occupation until the conditions were fulfilled. Delcassé reported the demands to France, leaving the government to choose between accepting them and facing renewed war.

• Wachth demanded that France limit its armed forces and surrender its ability to build or possess major weapons.
• Théophile Delcassé said he would report Germany’s conditions to his government rather than accept them himself.
• Wachth added that Germany would station one hundred thousand troops in France until the terms were carried out.
• After leaving the Foreign Ministry, Théophile Delcassé sent a Telegram home describing the demands and Germany’s threat to resume its offensive.
• Paul Borselli sought details of the negotiations, but Théophile Delcassé refused to tell him.

President Poincaré and the French Cabinet debated Germany’s harsh peace terms after France’s defeat. As the ministers confronted demands for reparations, colonies, and territory, René Viviani warned that rejection could bring continued invasion and mass slaughter.

• President Poincaré announced that Germany demanded fifty-five billion Marks in reparations, after Théophile Delcassé had negotiated the original demand down from one hundred billion.
• Alexander Ribot said France could not afford the reparations, while René Viviani explained that Germany knew about France’s overseas assets.
• President Poincaré revealed Germany’s demand for all French overseas colonies, provoking outrage from the Minister of Colonies and other ministers.
• President Poincaré announced that Germany also demanded the territory north of the Loire River, including Paris, and Corsica.
• René Viviani warned that Germany would pursue France into its colonies and might massacre millions if France rejected the terms, leaving the Cabinet silent with fear.

The French government debated whether to accept Germany’s demands, which included ceding the territory north of the Loire and severely restricting France’s military. When negotiations failed, Germany resumed its offensive and rapidly broke through French defenses, increasing pressure on the ministers to submit.

• Alexander Ribot told President Poincaré and Prime Minister René Viviani that France had to accept Germany’s terms or continue resisting at the risk of destruction.
• President Poincaré outlined Germany’s military restrictions and its demand to station 100,000 troops in France.
• French ministers argued over whether to accept the terms, as Germany gave France three days to decide.
• On May 27, Germany declared negotiations broken down and launched a massive offensive with more than a million troops.
• German forces breached French fortifications after half a day, and many French soldiers surrendered or fled.
• As Germany advanced, more French Cabinet Ministers shifted toward accepting the terms.

With French forces defeated and escape routes cut off, President Poincaré and Prime Minister René Viviani agreed to accept Germany’s terms. Théophile Delcassé signed the Treaty of Berlin, ending the war and leaving France severely reduced and under German occupation until it fulfilled the treaty.

• President Poincaré and Prime Minister René Viviani agreed to surrender after officials warned that France had nowhere left to retreat.
• Théophile Delcassé received the French government’s order to accept Germany’s terms and went to meet von Kiderlen-Wachth.
• Théophile Delcassé accepted Germany’s conditions, and the German Foreign Ministry drafted the peace treaty.
• Théophile Delcassé and von Kiderlen-Wachth signed the Treaty of Berlin, requiring France to pay reparations, surrender its colonies and northern territory, and limit its armed forces.
• The treaty ended the war, halted Germany’s offensive, and left 100,000 German troops stationed in France until France fulfilled its obligations.

After Germany forced France to sign a harsh peace treaty, Oscar decided how to use the reparations and prepared for negotiations with Italy and Austria-Hungary. Crown Prince Karl learned the treaty’s terms and grew furious and jealous over Germany’s gains.

• Wachth reported that France had accepted Germany’s conditions and signed the peace treaty, including fifty-five billion marks in reparations.
• Oscar directed that the reparations repay war debts, support preparations for an amphibious operation against Britain, and fund infrastructure in Germany’s eastern territories.
• Oscar arranged a palace banquet for the Austro-Hungarian delegation as officials discussed the allies’ dissatisfaction and Germany’s growing distrust of them.
• Jugenbrugg told Crown Prince Karl that France would pay reparations, surrender its colonies and territory, and accept strict military limits.
• Crown Prince Karl became jealous as he considered the wealth and power Germany stood to gain from France.

Crown Prince Karl complained that Germany had made a separate peace with France and excluded the Austro-Hungarian Empire from the spoils, then challenged Emperor Oscar about the treaty. Oscar argued that France had only been the Empire’s enemy in name because it had sent no troops against France.

• Crown Prince Karl condemned France for accepting Germany’s harsh peace terms and accused Germany of betraying its alliance with the Austro-Hungarian Empire.
• Baron von Berchtold warned Crown Prince Karl not to anger Germany and discussed with Ambassador Juluch how Germany viewed the Empire as a burden in the war.
• Emperor Oscar hosted the Austro-Hungarian delegation at a banquet and later accompanied Crown Prince Karl on a walk through the palace gardens.
• Crown Prince Karl confronted Oscar over Germany’s separate peace treaty with France, and Oscar replied that the Austro-Hungarian Empire had not actually fought France.

Oscar rejected Crown Prince Karl’s attempt to claim French reparations and heard the Austro-Hungarian Empire’s demands for peace with Italy. He objected to Karl’s sweeping claims but left negotiations unresolved, while intending to keep Libya under German control.

• Oscar told Crown Prince Karl that the Austro-Hungarian Empire could negotiate with France on its own for reparations.
• Crown Prince Karl dropped the demand for French reparations and asked Germany to support the Austro-Hungarian Empire’s claims against Italy.
• Karl demanded fifty billion Krone, Venice and nearby northern regions, and all of Italy’s overseas colonies.
• Oscar judged the demands too harsh, calculated that Italy could not afford them, and resolved not to give Libya to the Austro-Hungarian Empire.
• Karl threatened to invade Italy and destroy it completely if it refused his terms.