Chapter Summaries

German Foreign Minister Wachth visited Portugal and revealed that Germany wanted to buy the Azores for a naval base. President Sidonio Pais recognized the request as a threat to Portugal’s most important possession, but the chapter ended before he answered.

• Sidonio Pais met with Portuguese officials to discuss how to respond to Wachth’s visit and worried about Germany’s intentions.
• Sidonio Pais and government officials welcomed Wachth in Lisbon and hosted a banquet, but Wachth did not disclose his purpose.
• Wachth told Sidonio Pais that Germany needed Portugal’s help to prepare for threats from the United States.
• Wachth asked Portugal to sell the Azores to Germany for an Atlantic naval base, and Sidonio Pais realized the Germans had come for the islands.

Germany pressed Portugal to sell or lease the Azores for use as a naval base, while President Sidonio Pais feared either choice could entangle Portugal in a future war. He took the German proposals to the Cabinet, which remained divided over the risks of refusing Germany or siding against the United States.

• Wachth offered Sidonio Pais 300 million Marks to buy the Azores, but Sidonio Pais said he needed to consult the Cabinet and doubted Portugal would agree.
• Wachth proposed leasing the Azores for 99 years at six million Marks annually, and Sidonio Pais promised to respond soon.
• Sidonio Pais convened senior Portuguese officials to discuss Germany's demand to purchase or lease the Azores.
• Foreign Minister Castro warned that Portugal was too weak to keep the strategically coveted islands if Germany insisted on obtaining them.
• The Secretary of the Navy explained that Germany wanted an Atlantic military base to strengthen its position against the United States.
• The War Minister cautioned that Portugal could face American retaliation if it backed Germany and Germany later lost the war.

Portugal tried to delay Germany’s effort to buy or lease the Azores while Germany and Portugal negotiated without reaching an agreement. After learning that Germany could turn the islands into an Atlantic military base, President Woodrow Wilson ordered American support for Portugal.

• President Sidónio Pais and his officials decided to negotiate with Germany to buy time rather than immediately accept or reject its demands for the Azores.
• Foreign Minister Castro and German Foreign Minister Wachth haggled over the islands’ price and lease terms, but Portugal refused to agree even after Germany raised its offer to five hundred million marks.
• American and British embassies learned that Germany sought control of the Azores and recognized the threat a German naval base there would pose.
• President Woodrow Wilson and his officials discussed how to prevent Germany from occupying the islands.
• President Wilson ordered the American embassy in Portugal to express the United States’ support for the Portuguese government.

The United States debated how to prevent Germany from gaining control of the Azores, and Woodrow Wilson approved the possibility of occupying the islands if Germany’s move seemed inevitable. After American pressure, Portugal rejected Germany’s request to buy or lease the Azores, though the risk of conflict remained.

• Garrison proposed that the United States seize the Azores before Germany could, and Wilson agreed to consider the plan if any fighting stayed confined to the islands.
• The United States instructed its ambassador in Portugal to urge the Portuguese government to refuse Germany’s request.
• The American Ambassador warned Castro that Portugal could face consequences if it helped Germany, while Castro explained that Germany’s pressure was difficult to resist.
• Castro reported the American position to President Sidónio Pais, and Portugal’s senior officials decided to reject Germany’s demand.
• On November 11, 1918, Castro formally rejected Germany’s request to purchase or lease the Azores.

After Portugal refused Germany’s offer to buy or lease the Azores, Emperor Qin Tian’s government considered how to secure the strategically vital islands without openly invading Portugal. The chapter ended with Oscar ordering Germany to contact Portuguese military figures who could lead a coup.

• Portuguese Foreign Minister Castro rejected Wachth’s offer, saying Portugal wished to remain neutral, and Wachth returned to Germany.
• President Sidónio Pais dismissed Castro’s fears that the refusal would provoke Germany, though Castro remained uneasy.
• Oscar summoned Germany’s military and political ministers and declared that the Empire had to obtain the Azores.
• Admiral Reinhard Scheer warned that the United States might be backing Portugal, while Bülow cautioned against invading and damaging Germany’s reputation.
• Falkenhayn proposed supporting a Portuguese military coup, naming Portugal’s War Minister, Army Chief of Staff, and Colonel Carmona as candidates.
• Oscar ordered his officials to contact the Portuguese military figures.

Carmona negotiated German support for a military coup in Portugal in exchange for selling the Azores to Germany. After months of secret preparations, Portuguese troops seized Lisbon’s government buildings and arrested President Sidónio Pais and senior officials.

• Mendes offered Carmona twenty million Marks and equipment for two Infantry Divisions in exchange for Portugal selling Germany the Azores for five hundred million Marks.
• Carmona presented Germany’s terms to Cabecadas and da Costa, and they agreed to launch a coup.
• Germany funded the Portuguese military’s preparations and supplied equipment to Cabecadas’s trusted troops.
• On February 8, 1919, Portugal’s 1st Infantry Division mutinied and seized government buildings in Lisbon.
• Cabecadas declared a state of emergency and temporarily assumed presidential authority after Sidónio Pais and other officials were arrested.

After Cabecadas seized power in Portugal with German support, he signed an agreement selling the Azores to Germany for five hundred million Mark. Emperor Oscar ordered the islands fortified as a major Atlantic naval stronghold.

• Cabecadas took control of Portugal and appointed himself President and Prime Minister, while da Costa became War Minister and Carmona became Army Chief of Staff.
• The German Ambassador pressed Cabecadas to honor the agreement to sell the Azores, and Cabecadas proposed leasing them instead to protect his rule.
• Cabecadas agreed to sign the sale after the ambassador insisted Germany would enforce the agreement.
• Cabecadas and the German Ambassador signed the sale of the Azores for five hundred million Mark, making the islands German territory.
• Reinhard Scheer urged Germany to take over the Azores and build a naval base there, and Oscar ordered the islands turned into a heavily fortified stronghold.

Woodrow Wilson’s cabinet suspected Germany had engineered Portugal’s coup to gain the Azores and agreed to risk occupying the islands before Germany could. The United States planned to involve Britain, leaving the two nations preparing for a potentially limited war over the Azores.

• Woodrow Wilson and his cabinet discussed the successful coup led by Cabecadas and suspected Germany wanted the Azores as an Atlantic naval base.
• Daniels warned that German control of the Azores would threaten the American Navy, while Wilson questioned how the United States could prevent it.
• Garrison proposed sending American troops to seize the Azores, arguing that any conflict with Germany could be confined to the islands.
• Daniels, McAdoo, and Bryan supported taking the risk, and Bryan urged the cabinet to involve Britain.
• Woodrow Wilson approved the plan and ordered officials to notify Britain and secure its participation in the landing.

Churchill agreed to support the American plan to seize the Azores, judging that Germany would resist but avoid attacking the American mainland. The Americans landed on the islands and occupied them without opposition, while Germany had not yet sent troops to take control.

• Sir Edward Grey told Churchill that the Americans believed Germany had orchestrated Portugal’s coup and proposed seizing the Azores before Germany could occupy them.
• Churchill agreed to send small and medium warships and one Marine Corps Brigade to support the American landing.
• President Wilson ordered the Naval Ministry and the War Ministry to begin the operation, and the American fleet departed with the 1st Marine Division on February 9, 1919.
• Germany signed an agreement to buy the Azores but delayed sending troops while it arranged plans for naval bases and airfields.
• On February 15, the American fleet delivered the 1st Marine Division to the Azores, where Portuguese police surrendered and the Americans took the islands without bloodshed.

After the United States occupied the Azores, Germany learned that Portugal had sold the islands to the Empire and issued an ultimatum demanding an American withdrawal. The American Ambassador denied knowing the Azores belonged to Germany, but Wachth gave him twenty-four hours to comply.

• Major General Carmona told President Cabecadas that American troops had occupied the Azores, and Cabecadas chose to delay informing Germany.
• Major General Carmona secretly notified Germany of the occupation and Cabecadas's reaction.
• Foreign Minister Wachth informed Oscar that the Americans had occupied the Azores, and Oscar ordered preparations to confront them.
• Oscar ordered Wachth to deliver an ultimatum demanding that the United States withdraw from the Azores within twenty-four hours.
• Wachth told the American Ambassador that Germany had purchased the Azores, but the Ambassador claimed the occupation was a misunderstanding.

After the United States occupied the Azores, Oscar ordered the German Navy to retake the islands and attack the American fleet, with a possible strike on the American East Coast. German fleets, including six aircraft carriers, began deploying to the Atlantic as transport ships prepared to carry the 1st Marine Division.

• Admiral Scheer, Bülow, and Falkenhayn urged Oscar to retaliate against the American occupation of the Azores.
• Oscar ordered the Imperial Navy to defeat the American fleet near the Azores, retake the islands, and attack the American East Coast if the battle went well.
• Scheer recommended deploying the Home Fleet and Atlantic Fleet, and argued that aircraft carriers would ensure victory at minimal cost.
• Oscar authorized the Aircraft Carrier Formation to join the battle.
• The German Home Fleet sailed into the Atlantic to meet the Atlantic Fleet, while six aircraft carriers departed under cover of night and transports prepared to carry the 1st Marine Division.

President Woodrow Wilson prepared to hold the Azores against Germany, while the American Atlantic Fleet braced for the German counterattack. The chapter left General Henry Mayo and his fleet on combat alert after Germany’s ultimatum expired soon.

• President Woodrow Wilson dismissed the German ultimatum as expected and reviewed the American plans to defend the Azores.
• Minister Daniels reported that the 1st Marine Division was fortifying the islands and that more American and British troops would soon arrive.
• The 1st Marine Division forced local residents to help build defenses as the American Atlantic Fleet cruised near the Azores.
• General Henry Mayo received word of Germany’s ultimatum and ordered his fleet to cancel leave and prepare for battle.

The American and German fleets prepared for a decisive battle near the Azores, where the American Navy was protecting troops who had landed on the islands. Admiral Hipper planned to use the Carrier Fleet to strike the Americans after the German fleets drew out their main force, leaving the undeclared conflict on the brink of open war.

• General Henry Mayo and Lieutenant General Henry Wilson recognized that the Americans were outnumbered but decided they could not retreat while their Marines held the Azores.
• Admiral Hipper and German officers aboard the Kaiser discussed destroying the American fleet and then attacking the United States' East Coast shipyards.
• Admiral Holtzendorff assured Hipper that aircraft from six carriers could overwhelm the American battleships.
• Hipper ordered Burdick's Atlantic Fleet and the Home Fleet to operate separately and alert the Carrier Fleet when they found the Americans.

The German fleets bombarded US and British Marine positions in the Azores, then split up to lure the American fleet into attacking one of them. Under pressure from heavy Marine losses, General Henry Mayo ordered the American fleet to target the German Atlantic Fleet, unaware that he was walking into a trap.

• On February 18, Admiral Hipper ordered the German Home Fleet and Atlantic Fleet to bombard Angra do Heroísmo and nearby US Marine defenses, inflicting heavy casualties.
• The German fleets split up, with the Home Fleet heading west and the Atlantic Fleet heading east to bombard the Azores.
• Azores Marine commanders sent urgent telegrams demanding help, but General Henry Mayo refused to risk the American fleet against the combined German force.
• After learning that the German fleets had separated, General Henry Mayo ordered the American fleet to sail toward the waters east of São Miguel Island and attack the German Atlantic Fleet the next morning.

Admiral Hipper’s German forces used the bombardment of the Azores to lure the American fleet toward the Atlantic Fleet. General Henry Mayo ordered the Americans to attack despite his suspicions, and they headed into range of six waiting German aircraft carriers.

• Admiral Hipper explained that the German Home Fleet would search the Azores while carrier aircraft waited to strike the American fleet if it attacked the Atlantic Fleet.
• The German Atlantic Fleet bombarded São Miguel Island, destroying the US Marine Corps’ hastily built defenses and inflicting heavy casualties.
• The Marine Corps urged General Henry Mayo to attack, while Mayo questioned whether German fleets were hidden nearby.
• After Lieutenant General Henry Wilson reported no German fleet within a hundred kilometers, Mayo ordered the American fleet to move north against the Atlantic Fleet.
• As the American fleet advanced, six German aircraft carriers waited 150 kilometers from the Atlantic Fleet with their planes armed and ready.

The German Atlantic Fleet lured General Mayo’s American fleet into pursuing it while the German Carrier Fleet prepared a surprise air attack. Admiral Holtzendorff launched the first wave of carrier-based aircraft against the approaching Americans.

• Vice Admiral Burdick ordered the Atlantic Fleet to watch for the Americans while its ships bombarded São Miguel Island.
• A German destroyer spotted the American fleet approaching, so Burdick ordered his ships north and told the Carrier Fleet to launch its aircraft.
• General Mayo ordered the American fleet to pursue the retreating Germans at full speed despite suspecting a trap.
• Burdick kept the Americans following his fleet and sent their position to the Carrier Fleet.
• Admiral Holtzendorff ordered the first attack wave to take off, beginning with fighters, then bombers and torpedo bombers.

The German Navy's carrier-based aircraft arrived over the Atlantic Fleet's battle with the Americans, revealing the trap General Henry Mayo had failed to anticipate. As the Americans formed an anti-aircraft screen, the German aircraft began their attack.

• German carrier-based aircraft flew south toward the battlefield while Vice Admiral Burdick and Vice Admiral Schmidt waited for them to arrive.
• General Henry Mayo grew uneasy as the American fleet closed on the German Atlantic Fleet, but Lieutenant General Henry Wilson reported no German fleets nearby.
• The German aircraft appeared over the battlefield, and General Henry Mayo realized he had overlooked German aircraft carriers operating beyond the search area.
• General Henry Mayo ordered the American fleet into an anti-aircraft formation, with cruisers and destroyers protecting the Battleships.
• The German aircraft unit's commander ordered fighters to suppress American anti-aircraft fire while Bombers and Torpedo bombers prepared to attack.

German carrier-based aircraft overwhelmed the American fleet, sinking the Battleship Maryland and leaving General Mayo’s ships in grave danger. Mayo ordered the fleet to defend itself and retreat, though its slower speed made escape seem impossible.

• German fighters drew Maryland’s anti-aircraft fire aside, allowing dive bombers to hit the battleship with two armor-piercing bombs.
• German torpedo bombers struck Maryland with three torpedoes, flooding its stern and leaving it listing.
• German aircraft attacked Maryland again, inflicting further bomb and torpedo damage until its captain ordered the crew to abandon ship.
• Maryland sank, becoming the first capital ship lost in the naval battle, while Colorado survived with only one bomb hit.
• After a staff officer reported Maryland’s sinking, General Mayo ordered every ship to strengthen its air defense and the fleet to leave the waters.

German carrier aircraft devastated the American fleet, sinking two battleships and crippling others as General Henry Mayo’s forces struggled to escape. After the first wave returned to rearm, Mayo ordered a retreat, but a second wave of German aircraft soon arrived.

• Lieutenant General Henry Wilson warned General Henry Mayo that the American warships were too slow to escape German aircraft.
• German carrier aircraft attacked the American fleet, and a bomb detonated the ammunition magazine aboard the Battleship Arizona.
• General Henry Mayo permitted the Battleship Arizona to be abandoned as German aircraft inflicted heavy losses on the American fleet.
• The first wave of German aircraft withdrew to rearm, and Mayo ordered the fleet to retreat at full speed.
• A second wave of German carrier aircraft arrived over the American fleet.

The German Navy's second wave of carrier-based aircraft overwhelmed the American fleet, sinking the Battleship California and attacking the flagship Colorado. General Mayo could only watch as the fleet faced likely annihilation, while seven torpedoes closed in on Colorado.

• General Mayo and Lieutenant General Henry Wilson realized the American fleet had no viable defense against the German Navy's second air attack.
• German aircraft attacked the undamaged American Battleships, and bombs and torpedoes struck the Battleship California.
• The Battleship California sank after further carrier-based aircraft attacked it, and General Mayo received the news helplessly.
• Seven German Torpedo bombers dropped torpedoes at the Battleship Colorado after one bomber was shot down.
• Colorado's sailors panicked and some jumped into the sea as the seven torpedoes raced toward the flagship.