Chapter Summaries

Franz and the Austrian Cabinet launched a public campaign for peaceful German unification, with Prime Minister Felix traveling among the German states to propose rebuilding the Holy Roman Empire. Prussia recognized Austria’s ambitions and planned to obstruct the proposal without damaging its already poor reputation.

• Franz tasked Felix with visiting the German states and presenting the proposal to rebuild the Holy Roman Empire, while the Cabinet treated peaceful negotiations as a pretext for possible future unification.
• Felix departed after Christmas as German nationalists welcomed his mission, and the Holy Roman Faction’s peaceful-unification platform gained public support.
• In Berlin, Joseph von Radowitz warned Friedrich Wilhelm IV that Austria might have Russian backing and could exploit the European powers’ distraction to unite Germany diplomatically.
• Friedrich Wilhelm IV and Radowitz agreed that Prussia could resist Austrian force alongside the German states, but chose to find a way to sabotage Austria’s plan without stirring public resentment.

Bulgarian guerrillas captured territory and destroyed Allied supplies while British reinforcements struggled to contain them. As FitzRoy Somerset launched a Russian assault on the Allied line, General Mantua prepared the Sardinians to retreat and frame the Ottomans for betraying British deployment plans.

• Bulgarian guerrillas attacked more than ten cities, disrupting British plans and forcing British troops to pursue them through repeated ambushes.
• Edimir ordered his fighters to halt their attack on Plovdiv, seize what supplies they could, and burn the rest before the British arrived.
• Lieutenant General Montes blamed Major General Oliver for delaying the handover of defensive sectors and ordered him to retake lost ground and protect Allied supply lines.
• FitzRoy Somerset launched a major Russian assault on the Sofia front, concentrating his attack on the Sardinian defensive line.
• General Mantua rejected a proposal to open a gap for the Russians and instead ordered the Sardinians to abandon forward positions and leave British deployment documents marked in Bulgarian for the Russians to find.

Franz and Marshal Radetzky considered adopting the Steyr M1852 Rifle, while the Allied line at Sofia collapsed under a Russian assault aided by Bulgarian guerrillas. The costly Russian victory became the turning point of the Second Battle of Bulgaria, and the Tsarist government agreed to recognize the guerrillas’ contributions.

• Franz asked Marshal Radetzky about replacing Austria’s current weapons, and they settled on first ordering one hundred thousand Steyr M1852 Rifles for trial use.
• Mantua ordered the Sardinian army to keep fighting the Russians while secretly preparing to withdraw if the British line collapsed.
• The Russians bombarded Allied artillery positions and supply depots before attacking, while Montes called for Oliver’s reinforcements to hurry to the front.
• Bulgarian guerrillas attacked the British rear on January 2, 1853, and the Sardinians fled, breaking Montes’s defensive line.
• Oliver arrived with reinforcements, fought an encounter battle with the Russians, and led his troops and scattered British soldiers away as the exhausted Russians halted their pursuit.
• FitzRoy Somerset claimed victory after the costly campaign, credited Bulgarian guerrillas with delaying Allied reinforcements, and secured the Tsarist government’s acceptance of their merits.

After the defeat at Sofia, Oliver took command of a shattered British expeditionary force and prepared to hold the line while awaiting reinforcements. In Kraljevo, Austrian Lieutenant Colonel Haydn agreed to disarm British and Sardinian troops who had deliberately fled to neutral protection, and more deserters were expected to arrive.

• Oliver learned that the British had suffered thousands of casualties and had only about thirty thousand troops left under his command, many lacking weapons and morale.
• Oliver ordered his remaining forces to defend Kazanlak and Stara Zagora while they awaited fifty thousand reinforcements from Britain.
• Lieutenant Colonel Haydn received British Colonel Daniel and offered either disarmament and postwar repatriation or immediate departure from Kraljevo.
• Daniel chose disarmament, claiming the Russians had cut off the troops’ route, and Haydn arranged an agreement describing their arrival as accidental.
• Daniel reported that 1,531 British and Sardinian soldiers, including 62 wounded, were present and said more routed troops might follow.

Franz learned that Austria had captured British soldiers and considered how to use them as leverage while Austria and Prussia maneuvered over the proposed Holy Roman Alliance. In Russia, Nicholas I ordered fresh divisions to reinforce the front, while Aimable Jean Jacques Pélissier struggled to keep the battered French army in the war against relentless Russian attacks.

• Prince Windisch-Grätz reported that Austrian troops had disarmed British soldiers who had wandered into the Serbian front, and Franz ordered the Foreign Ministry to notify Britain while holding them until after the war.
• Metternich told Franz that Prussia had rejected rebuilding the Holy Roman Alliance, and Franz and his ministers discussed luring Bavaria into leading opposition to the proposal.
• Russian ministers debated whether to attack toward Sliven or advance through neighboring regions, and Ivanovich recommended rotating exhausted troops and sending reinforcements.
• Nicholas I ordered five divisions from the Lviv Region and eight from the Moscow Region to reinforce the front and directed troops in Ukraine to guard against landings.
• With the Ottoman army unable to replace its losses, Aimable Jean Jacques Pélissier faced mounting French casualties as Menshikov repeatedly attacked, leaving the French army battered and retreating.

Prime Minister George Hamilton Gordon’s government committed Britain to opening a Crimean front as the allied army collapsed in the Balkans and Britain, France, and the Ottomans fought over responsibility. Meanwhile, Felix’s campaign for German unification won popular enthusiasm and some support, though most state governments remained neutral.

• George Hamilton Gordon’s cabinet debated opening a Crimean front, and Britain and France agreed to send three hundred thousand troops to the peninsula.
• Aimable Jean Jacques Pélissier withdrew the French army from Sliven, leaving the British and Ottoman forces to suffer devastating losses as the Russians pursued them.
• Oliver accused Pélissier of abandoning the allies, while Pélissier blamed Britain’s missing reinforcements and misleading intelligence.
• Napoleon III conceded to allied pressure, assigning France to defend Constantinople, Britain and Sardinia to Greece and Montenegro, and Britain the largest share of war costs.
• Felix arrived in Frankfurt after touring German states, having gained popular support and the backing of several free cities while most governments withheld commitment.

Maximilian II and his ministers debated how Bavaria should respond to Austria’s plan to revive the Holy Roman Empire, weighing the dangers of opposing Austria against the loss of Bavarian power under a central government. Pressured by the German states and the great powers, Maximilian chose to oppose Austria in hopes of gaining support for a Bavaria-led unification, setting his kingdom on a dangerous course.

• Maximilian II convened his ministers to decide Bavaria’s position before Felix arrived in Munich.
• Prime Minister August warned that openly opposing Austria would damage relations and anger Bavarians who favored peaceful German unification.
• Finance Minister Bazel argued that accepting Austria’s terms would eventually strip the states of their military, financial, and diplomatic authority.
• August proposed following the majority of German states instead of taking the lead, but Foreign Minister Buckhouse said the states and great powers expected Bavaria to act.
• Maximilian II concluded that opposing Austria could win British, French, and Russian support for his plan to unite the German states under Bavaria.
• Maximilian II accepted the path of confrontation, unaware that it would lead Bavaria beyond a point of return.

Prime Minister Felix’s mission to win Bavarian support for restoring the Holy Roman Empire failed, and his speeches highlighted how difficult German unification would be. Back in Vienna, Franz rejected political unification as too dangerous amid foreign opposition, while Metternich said Austria could begin the next stage of its plan.

• Felix failed to persuade Bavaria to support restoring the Holy Roman Empire and gave speeches at the University of Munich urging peaceful unification through a fair system.
• Bavarian officials monitored Felix’s speeches and limited his public appearances before he returned to Vienna.
• Felix reported that most German states opposed restoration, and Franz warned that Britain, France, and Russia would unite against a German Empire.
• Metternich told Franz that the time was ripe to begin the next stage of Austria’s plan, and Franz approved.

Franz and Austria used unrest over German unification to isolate Bavaria while the Crimean War strained Russia and Austrian finances. As Austria prepared to move against Bavaria, Marshal Radetzky urged Franz to create a pretext for war, and Franz approved proceeding with the plan.

• Bavarian students and other groups protested the government’s opposition to rebuilding the Holy Roman Empire, invoking former King Ludwig’s pledge to German unification.
• Maximilian II and Prime Minister August agreed to promote a revised Three-State Cabinet plan, with Bavaria representing the smaller German states alongside Austria and Prussia.
• Britain and France opened the Crimean War, exposing Russia’s military weakness and disrupting its deployment.
• Finance Minister Karl reported that Russia could not raise loans, and Franz refused to provide another large Austrian loan.
• Metternich proposed helping Russia sell bonds while Austria exploited Bavarian unrest and encouraged resentment among the smaller German states.
• Marshal Radetzky told Franz it was time to manufacture a war pretext, and Franz ordered him to proceed according to plan.

Austria turned public outrage over Bavaria’s alleged collusion with Britain, France, and Russia into a pretext for war and Franz declared that the traitors within must be eliminated. As Austrian forces prepared to act, Maximilian II ordered Bavaria to mobilize and seek foreign aid, even as his ministers warned that intervention could confirm the accusations.

• Franz funded a press campaign that vilified Bavaria’s proposal for a three-state German order and revived allegations that Bavaria wanted to divide Germany with foreign help.
• After the German public embraced force as a means of unification, Chancellor Felix delivered the Iron Curtain Speech on June 1, 1853, signaling Austria’s turn toward war.
• On June 5, Franz issued the Address to the German People, accused Bavaria of colluding with foreign enemies, and declared war on the Bavarian Government.
• Maximilian II ordered nationwide mobilization and requests for aid from Britain, France, Russia, and the German states, while Prime Minister August urged a public denial of Austria’s charges.
• Foreign Minister Buckhouse warned that public opinion made foreign intervention dangerous for Bavaria, but Maximilian insisted the great powers would intervene and urged them to seize the chance to drive Austria out of Germany.

Austria went to war with Bavaria to force German unification, while Britain, France, Prussia, and the German states weighed intervention against their own interests. Bavaria was left to fight alone as the conflict began, despite its government believing it had received support.

• Britain's government decided to rally the German states against Austria but could offer little more than diplomatic pressure while the Near East War continued.
• Napoleon III chose to publicly pressure Austria while secretly encouraging it to continue fighting and urging the German states to resist.
• Frankfurt's capitalists and other free cities hesitated over intervention as Austria's promised benefits of unification competed with distrust of its treatment of capitalists.
• Baden's leaders declined to rush to Bavaria's aid, citing military weakness, hostile public opinion, and the expectation that the great powers would intervene.
• Prussia's leaders rejected a direct war with Austria and sought to organize the smaller German states while preserving Prussian strength.
• Bavaria began mobilizing for a homeland defense, unaware that the countries it expected to help were leaving it to fight alone as the fighting started.

Austria’s rapid invasion of Bavaria prompted border towns and garrisons to declare neutrality, leaving Maximilian II isolated as Austrian troops reached Munich. The Munich Assembly also declared neutrality, and Maximilian realized the great powers were divided over Austria’s campaign.

• Austria invaded Bavaria with 400,000 troops, and Bavarian border defenses were caught unprepared.
• Marcus urged Colonel Andreas to respect Freilassing’s neutrality resolution, and Andreas’s officers voted overwhelmingly to stand aside.
• Bavarian border towns and garrisons declared neutrality in succession, allowing Austrian forces to advance rapidly toward Munich.
• Prime Minister August urged Maximilian II to flee or retreat west, while Finance Minister Bazel tried to reassure him about the people’s loyalty.
• The Munich Assembly declared neutrality as Austrian troops reached the city, and Maximilian II concluded that the great powers had been divided.

Franz used Austria’s overwhelming military presence and a campaign for German unification to secure Bavarian neutrality and prepare the annexation of Bavaria. As Austria’s representatives negotiated with Maximilian II’s government, the proposed exchange of Bavaria for Serbia left the talks deadlocked.

• Franz rejected Prime Minister Felix’s suggestion to expand Austria’s campaign, warning that Austria needed stability and should not risk its gains.
• Franz sent Metternich to reassure Prussia and Felix to persuade the German states, beginning with Saxony, to join through political means.
• As Austria besieged Munich, Maximilian II found that the city’s defense force had declared neutrality and that only a newly assembled division and the Palace Guard remained loyal.
• Jonas told Buckhouse that Bavaria’s rulers had lost their foundation and proposed exchanging Bavaria for Serbia, with Maximilian II becoming King of Serbia.
• Buckhouse rejected Serbia as an unacceptable exile, and negotiations stalled over the proposed territorial exchange.

As Austria advanced into Munich and Bavarian support for resistance collapsed, German states chose neutrality, wrecking plans for a coalition army. Prussia held back while Britain sought Russian cooperation to prevent German unification, leaving the conflict dependent on the great powers’ next moves.

• As news of Bavaria’s territorial exchange spread, the Bavarian people accepted Austria’s arrival in Munich and stopped feeling obliged to defend Maximilian II.
• In Baden, Prince Friedrich chose neutrality after Nicolaus and Woltz warned that intervening could provoke domestic opposition.
• As Baden, Hanover, Württemberg, and other German states declared neutrality, Prussia’s coalition plans collapsed, and Friedrich Wilhelm IV ordered the country to stay on guard while awaiting Metternich’s terms.
• Friedrich Wilhelm IV asked Britain, France, Russia, and Spain to intervene, but Spain refused and the other powers deferred to their governments.
• In London, Thomas reported that Bavaria’s collapse and the German states’ neutrality had cleared the way for Austrian-led unification.
• George Hamilton Gordon proposed approaching Russia to oppose German unification, while Stanley warned that Britain could not simply abandon the war against Russia.

Russia debated how to restrain Austria without breaking their alliance, while France considered opposing Austria’s expansion but lacked troops for intervention. Franz meanwhile launched Austria’s diplomatic campaign across Europe, especially targeting the German states and France.

• In Saint Petersburg, Karl-Wessel urged Nicholas I to prevent German unification by dividing the states, while Arestanlirode warned against violating the Russo-Austrian treaty.
• Karl-Wessel proposed that Britain and France block Austria’s expansion, let Prussia gain territory in North Germany, and divide the remaining German states among neighboring countries or leave them independent.
• In Paris, Napoleon III learned that Austria’s takeover of Bavaria had broad popular support and feared Austria might revive the Holy Roman Empire.
• Persigny advised Napoleon III to coordinate with Britain and Russia before intervening, and Arnaud said France would need at least six months to assemble enough troops.
• Franz sent Austria’s Foreign Ministry to conduct a public-relations campaign across Europe, seeking support from the German states and France while informing Switzerland of Austria’s position.

Prime Minister Felix secured Baden’s agreement to Austrian-led German unification, while Saxony, Württemberg, and Frankfurt joined the emerging empire. A coalition of twelve European powers, including Prussia, then forced Austria to halt its unification campaign, though Franz had already achieved his objective.

• Felix persuaded Prince Friedrich that Austria could manage foreign opposition and won Baden’s agreement to German unification.
• After a week of negotiations, Felix and Prince Friedrich signed the Declaration of German Unification on July 9, 1853.
• Felix secured Württemberg’s submission, and on July 11 Austria, Bavaria, Baden, Saxony, and Württemberg formed the core of the new empire; Frankfurt also announced it would join.
• Britain, France, and Russia declared a month-long ceasefire in the Near East, then joined nine other countries in demanding Austria halt unification.
• Prussia joined the intervening powers, while Britain, France, and Russia refused to support its ambitions for a share of the German lands.
• Austria halted its march toward unification, leaving German supporters dismayed even though Franz’s objective had already been achieved.

Metternich maneuvered to keep Prussia from aligning with Britain and France, then negotiated French recognition of the New Holy Roman Empire in exchange for Austria's verbal support of French ambitions. The chapter ended with France and Austria signing treaties that divided spheres of influence and a secret mutual assistance pact.

• Metternich offered Prussia a share of Germany, but Frederick William IV demanded Saxony as compensation, and the negotiations ended without agreement.
• Metternich met Napoleon III at Versailles and offered Austrian support for French expansion in exchange for recognition of the New Holy Roman Empire.
• Napoleon III demanded territory west of the Rhine, Austrian withdrawal from Italy, limits on German expansion, and an end to Austrian support for Russia; Metternich rejected most of the terms.
• Metternich and Napoleon III signed two treaties on August 6, 1853, defining their spheres of influence in Italy and Central Europe.
• Metternich and Napoleon III also signed a secret pact in which France recognized the New Holy Roman Empire and Austria promised support for French claims in regions including the Rhineland, Belgium, Luxembourg, Sardinia, and Sicily.

Prime Minister Felix traveled to London to negotiate with British Prime Minister George Hamilton-Gordon over Austria’s plans in South Germany, its control of Lombardy-Venetia, and its stance in the Near East War. The talks ended without agreement, and Felix returned with only an ambiguous British response before leaving the Paris Conference to Metternich.

• Felix argued that Austria could not surrender Lombardy-Venetia because of its economic importance, despite George Hamilton-Gordon proposing that Austria give it up in exchange for British recognition of the Holy Roman Empire.
• George Hamilton-Gordon urged Austria to stop supporting Russia, while Felix insisted Austria had remained neutral in the Near East War and had only conducted free trade with Russia.
• George Hamilton-Gordon asked whether Austria would return Ottoman lands after the war, and Felix said Austria might do so if the Ottoman Government paid sufficient ransom.
• George Hamilton-Gordon and Felix failed to reach an agreement, as Britain could neither force Austria to yield nor secure sufficient benefits from it.
• Felix began his return journey and left Metternich to handle the upcoming Paris Conference.

As German unification stalled amid the intervention of the great powers, nationalists in Munich blamed Prussia while debating whether to protest or focus on strengthening Germany. Franz traveled to Saint Petersburg to make a show of Austria’s diplomatic efforts, but his journey ended with him seasick and noticeably thinner.

• Bayer urged Schwal to organize a protest march for German unification, but Schwal argued that Germans should focus on building national strength.
• Bayer blamed Prussia for siding with the intervention alliance, while the Prussian Government remained unwilling to risk joining Austria in unifying Germany.
• Franz set out from Vienna for Saint Petersburg, traveling through Poland because routes through Prussia were politically unacceptable.
• Count Medvis offered to switch the journey to water travel, and Franz agreed in hopes of making up time.
• Franz became severely seasick on the sea voyage, forcing the party to stop for three days and travel more slowly afterward.
• Franz reached Saint Petersburg noticeably thinner after resting at ports along the way.

The Paris negotiations narrowed to a meeting of the great powers while German states debated alternatives to unification under Prussia or Austria. In Baden, Prince Friedrich agreed to the British federal-empire plan in principle but delayed any public commitment until the Paris Conference reached a decision.

• Karl-Wersel proposed reducing the number of conference participants, and Metternich, Auvergne, and Thomas supported the proposal until only six nations remained.
• Debate over dividing North and South Germany spread through the German lands, as nationalists and cautious advocates argued over the risks of unification.
• A British-backed proposal gained support in North Germany to exclude Prussia and Austria and unite the remaining German states in a federal country.
• Prime Minister Woltz warned Prince Friedrich that the proposed federal empire could bring benefits but would be vulnerable to Austria and France.
• Foreign Minister Nicolaus argued that the British first needed to subdue Austria and Prussia, and Prince Friedrich agreed to the plan while withholding public support until the Paris Conference concluded.