Chapter Summaries

Franz and the cabinet debated how to punish prisoners captured after the Vienna rebellion, while Franz tried to preserve their labor and keep confiscated wealth under state control. They settled on fining the workers and sending them to factories until their debts were paid, with harsher collective punishment for sabotage.

• Franz asked the cabinet how the rebellion’s prisoners should be sentenced after rebel leaders and revolutionary activists had already been executed.
• Archduke Louis demanded severe punishment for every prisoner after rebels killed his younger son and looted noble homes.
• Franz explained that many nobles had joined the rebellion to loot banks, and he planned to send confiscated valuables to the treasury rather than return them to their former owners.
• Franz proposed fining captured workers and making them work in factories until they had paid their fines, and Finance Minister Karl supported the plan.
• Finance Minister Karl proposed grouping prisoners so they would report on one another, with group members sent to the mines if they failed to expose sabotage.
• Franz declared the factory labor plan settled, with the prisoners facing collective punishment if they sabotaged their workplaces.

Franz pushed a military plan to prepare for uprisings across Austria and Hungary while securing control over the forces assigned to suppress them. He left Felix unable to block the preparations, and insisted that Hungary must integrate into Austria rather than become independent.

• Felix proposed doubling Vienna’s City Defense Force and raising two hundred thousand troops, while Franz used the plan to remove ineffective officers and place Lieutenant General Albrecht in command.
• Franz argued that Radetzky and Windisch-Grätz were needed to handle uprisings in Italy and Bohemia, then proposed sending fifty thousand troops to reinforce Italy.
• Franz proposed appointing Josip Jelačić governor of Croatia and commander of its City Defense Force, and Julius Jacob von Haynau governor of Slovakia and commander of its City Defense Force.
• Felix warned that preparations to suppress a Hungarian uprising could undermine ongoing negotiations, but Franz argued that Hungary’s leaders had repeatedly resisted concessions and threatened Austria’s unity.
• Franz declared that Hungary could pursue reform only by integrating into Austria, while Felix insisted that Hungary remain an indispensable part of the Empire.

Franz pushed for crushing a Hungarian rebellion and securing Russian support, while proposing the abolition of serfdom and a land reform plan. He left the cabinet facing a choice between surrendering land or employing former serfs, with rebels' property to be confiscated.

• Prime Minister Felix supported Franz's plan to resolve the Hungarian problem by force, while Foreign Minister Metternich warned that Austria could not bear the military pressure of a rebellion.
• Franz ordered the Foreign Ministry to seek Russian support and said he would rather compromise with France or Prussia than with domestic rebels.
• Finance Minister Karl raised the need for internal reform and the abolition of serfdom, and Franz said former serfs needed land to secure their livelihoods.
• Franz proposed confiscating the land of nobles who aided the rebellion and allowing farmers to lease or buy it in installments.
• Franz proposed buying land from loyal nobles without forcing them to sell, while requiring nobles who kept their land to employ former serfs, limit rents, and pay taxes.

Franz and the Austrian cabinet agreed on a compromise reform of serfdom and land ownership while preparing to strengthen central authority amid unrest across the Empire. The Vienna Government abolished serfdom and introduced a voluntary land-redemption program, leaving peasants free but making land ownership gradual.

• Franz rejected removing limits on land rental income, and Felix argued that nobles who resisted reform would bear the consequences of rebellion.
• The cabinet agreed to reform serfdom, and Franz planned a limited purge of corrupt or incompetent officials while weakening regional noble power.
• Franz assessed uprisings and political unrest in Lombardy, Venice, Galicia, Hungary, Croatia, Dalmatia, Slovenia, Transylvania, and Slovakia.
• On March 19, 1848, the Vienna Government issued the Abolition of Serfdom Act, granting peasants free status and banning forced labor except as punishment for criminals.
• On March 20, the Vienna Government issued the Land Redemption Act, allowing nobles to sell land to the government for lease and installment purchase by peasants over up to forty years.

Franz’s Vienna Government passed laws protecting tenants, released serfs, borrowers, and workers, easing public hostility toward the government in Vienna. As revolution spread to Prussia and unrest grew in Prague, the cabinet ordered arrests and prepared to suppress the Czech demonstrations.

• The Vienna Government introduced the Land Lease Act, Serf Settlement Security Act, Anti-Usury Act, and Minimum Wage Act to protect basic rights and livelihoods.
• Franz’s legislative campaign shifted public attention and weakened the revolution’s popular support in Vienna.
• The government welcomed news that the Berlin Revolution had broken out, leaving Prussia occupied with unrest.
• Demonstrators in the Czech region demanded a unified parliament, an independent National Guard, and equal status for Czech, while Franz rejected the demands.
• Felix said the Prague Government had been ordered to arrest the plotters and that Prince Windisch-Grätz would prepare to suppress the rebellion.

Franz and his ministers debated abolishing local tariffs with Hungary to win over capitalists, stabilize grain prices, and revive Austria’s economy, despite the measure’s likely harm to Hungarian nobles and Austrian estate owners. The government backed the proposal as it prepared for a costly war, though Hungary’s market offered little certainty while rebellion threatened transport and trade.

• Finance Minister Karl proposed abolishing the remaining local tariffs between Austria and Hungary to ease capitalist discontent and pressure Hungarian nobles.
• Franz supported the proposal, reasoning that it would weaken the great nobles without driving most Hungarians into rebellion.
• Archduke Louis objected that tariff abolition would hurt Austrian farmers and grain earnings.
• Prime Minister Felix argued that Hungarian grain would lower prices and that Austrian goods would gain better access to the Hungarian market.
• Foreign Minister Metternich supported the measure, citing Austria’s fiscal crisis, the cost of suppressing the rebellion, and the need to restart factories.
• Franz recognized that fighting could disrupt transport and make the hoped-for revival of trade with Hungary uncertain.

After Sardinia declared war on Austria and other Italian States joined under public pressure, Franz ordered Marshal Radetzky to hold his ground with the troops already sent while Austria dealt with unrest at home. The chapter left the Italian front in a cautious holding phase as Franz expected Radetzky to prevail.

• The Vienna Government abolished local customs duties, prompting Hungary's representative to walk out over the terms.
• News reached Vienna that Sardinia had declared war on Austria, and Franz asked whether the reinforcements sent to Marshal Radetzky had arrived.
• Felix reported that the fifty thousand reinforcements had reached the Venice region and begun suppressing the rebellion.
• Franz ordered Radetzky to fight as best he could, hold what ground he could, and wait another month for further reinforcements.
• Franz rejected Felix's suggestion to send more troops, explaining that Austria needed to preserve forces for the unstable situation at home.

Marshal Radetzky decided to abandon Milan and draw the Kingdom of Sardinia deeper into Lombardy, expecting to isolate it from other Italian states and exploit its logistical strain. Lieutenant General Edmond Leopold Friedri then proposed a plan to make Lombardy welcome Sardinian occupation even more warmly.

• Marshal Radetzky ordered the Austrian troops to prepare to abandon Milan on April 1, overruling Major General Victor’s objections.
• Marshal Radetzky explained that retreating would shorten Austria’s lines, keep other Italian states out of the war, and leave Sardinia overextended and without substantial British or French support.
• Marshal Radetzky considered how Sardinia’s occupation could draw Lombard nobles and capitalists to its side, allowing Austria to purge them and use their property to win over the people after reclaiming the territory.
• Lieutenant General Edmond Leopold Friedri suggested spreading word that would give Lombardy’s people an even better impression of the Kingdom of Sardinia.

Franz used the failed Dalmatian uprising to confiscate the rebel nobles’ estates and reward the capitalists and serfs who helped suppress it. Prime Minister Felix objected to granting land to the serfs but ultimately accepted Franz’s plan to strengthen imperial support among the peasants.

• A revolt led by Dalmatian noble officials was put down by local capitalists and serfs before Austrian troops arrived.
• Prime Minister Felix explained that the nobles had hoped to gain power and join forces with rebels in Trieste and the Italian regions, but the capitalists abandoned them to protect their interests.
• Franz ordered the rebel nobles’ estates confiscated, their opponents rewarded, and the emancipation law carried out, including grants of land to serfs who had helped suppress the uprising.
• Felix objected that the serfs should receive freedom but not land, while Franz argued that rewards were needed to unite forces against rebellions elsewhere in the empire.
• Felix backed down, and Franz began distributing land to serfs who had helped put down the rebellion.

Franz and his ministers debated how Austria should respond to the Frankfurt Assembly, which had excluded Austria and could help Prussia unify the German states. Franz decided Austria should sabotage the assembly or suppress its influence, while a proposed South German union remained only a possibility.

• Franz rejected Chancellor Felix’s suggestion to ignore the Frankfurt Assembly and warned it could promote a Lesser German Empire that excluded Austria.
• Metternich argued that the assembly’s popular influence and possible secret ties to Prussia threatened Austria, while Felix dismissed it as powerless.
• Franz stopped their quarrel and ordered his ministers to find ways to sabotage the assembly or limit its influence.
• Karl proposed forming a North-South German Empire, but Metternich argued that the plan would fail and cost Austria too much.

Franz and his ministers discussed ways to undermine the Frankfurt Assembly while Austria handled its internal unrest. An urgent report revealed Austria had lost Milan and most of Lombardy, leaving Franz to suspect Marshal Radetzky was luring the Italians deeper into Austrian territory.

• Archduke Louis proposed convening a federal parliament of German states, but Felix warned that their conflicting interests would prevent agreement.
• Metternich suggested that Austria declare the Frankfurt Assembly illegal, while Franz proposed sending representatives to stall it and sow discord.
• Metternich recommended attacking the assembly through public opinion by portraying its representatives as capitalists who did not represent the German people.
• An officer delivered military intelligence reporting that Milan had fallen, most of Lombardy was lost, and fighting had spread to Venice.
• Franz noticed that Radetzky's vague report requested no immediate reinforcements and inferred that the marshal was drawing the enemy deeper into Austrian territory.

Franz and his ministers debated the political fallout from Marshal Radetzky’s withdrawal from Lombardy and how Austria should respond to foreign and domestic threats. Franz left the army in Venice without reinforcements and ordered heightened vigilance against rebellion at home.

• Franz directed the Foreign Ministry to seek British and French neutrality or support, while Metternich argued that Britain would favor a unified Italy and could not be trusted to back Austria.
• Metternich explained that France was too distracted by internal conflict to intervene effectively, while Russia and Britain remained wary of the Paris government.
• Finance Minister Karl warned that Austria’s greatest danger was domestic rebellion, especially in Hungary, after the setback in Italy.
• Franz ordered the troops to heighten their vigilance and suppress any rebellion immediately, noting that Austria had expanded its military to 578,000 men.
• Franz rejected sending reinforcements to Marshal Radetzky, judging that his troops could hold Venice and that the Kingdom of Sardinia had limited forces.

After Sardinia entered Lombardy, the provisional government discovered Milan had no grain and could not supply the Sardinian army. Casati suspected Sardinia had helped burn the grain to pressure Lombardy into annexation, while Sardinian soldiers waited for food and their officers celebrated.

• The Kingdom of Sardinia entered Lombardy as the people welcomed its troops and Casati led a provisional government.
• Ciraya told Casati that Milan’s granaries had been burned and the city could not provide food for Sardinia’s army.
• Casati accused the Sardinians of deliberately creating the shortage to force Lombardy into annexation, and he ordered the people to stay alert.
• King Charles Albert and Sardinia’s leaders celebrated their acquisition of Lombardy without recognizing the crisis.
• Colonel Manstu tried to calm hungry soldiers in Milan and sent men to demand food from the provisional government.

President Casati yielded Lombardy’s provisional government to the Kingdom of Sardinia after the Sardinian army demanded food, while General Badoglio claimed credit for the destruction of the Austrian granaries. King Charles Albert ordered grain sent to Milan and rewarded Badoglio by granting him the title of Marshal.

• Manstu soothed the hungry Sardinian troops, and their officers demanded an explanation from Casati the next morning.
• The Kingdom of Sardinia pressured Casati into accepting its terms, and General Badoglio took control of the local militia.
• Local nobles and capitalists contributed grain, while Badoglio claimed that he had arranged the burning of Austrian granaries and shared the credit with other generals.
• Badoglio reported Lombardy’s food shortage to the homeland, and King Charles Albert ordered Castanto to send grain to Milan.
• King Charles Albert promoted those who had rendered merit and awarded Badoglio the title of Marshal of the Kingdom of Sardinia.

Marshal Badoglio struggled to feed Milan after the Austrians’ defeat, while corruption and ration cuts worsened the city’s food crisis. In Paris, the provisional government’s policies fueled unrest between workers and the bourgeoisie.

• Badoglio gathered grain from Lombard estates and awaited supplies from the Kingdom of Sardinia, but the available food could feed Milan for only a few days.
• Badoglio ordered residents to receive seventy percent of their rations and hoped incoming grain would arrive before supplies ran out.
• Local nobles, capitalists, and some Sardinian officers diverted relief grain into an open underground market, leaving residents with less than half their allotment and adulterated bread.
• People with money bought grain at prices over ten times the prewar level, while the poor endured hunger and trusted Badoglio’s promise that the shortage would last only a few days.
• In Paris, Blanquists led 150,000 demonstrators on March 17 as the provisional government’s policies against savers and peasants intensified class conflict.

After Sardinia occupied Lombardy, Alphonse de Lamartine negotiated with Austria over Italy and France’s diplomatic standing. The two governments agreed to a proposed division of Sardinia’s territories, though Austria intended the deal as a delaying tactic and left France with a blank check.

• Alphonse de Lamartine learned that Sardinia had occupied Lombardy without fighting and received the Austrian ambassador, Mentened.
• Alphonse told Mentened that Lombardy should become independent, but Mentened insisted it belonged to Austria and proposed dividing Sardinia instead.
• Mentenend offered Austria Genoa and Turin while France took the remaining Sardinian territories, and Alphonse objected that Sardinia’s core regions were concentrated in those cities.
• Mentenend negotiated to keep France from supporting Sardinia, while Austria had no intention of expanding until it resolved its internal problems.
• Alphonse and Mentened began drawn-out negotiations over dividing Italy, securing Austria’s recognition of the provisional government, and ending restrictions imposed on France by the Vienna System.

John Russell and Palmerston weighed Britain’s response to the collapse of the Vienna System and the Austrian-Sardinian War. Palmerston favored ambiguous promises to Austria and limited support for Sardinia, leaving Britain free to benefit whichever way events turned.

• Palmerston proposed backing a unified Italian dynasty to weaken Austria and block French expansion, but John Russell warned that Austria’s collapse could let the Habsburgs or Prussia unify Germany.
• John Russell argued that Austria was needed to contain Russia in the Near East and feared that denying Austria British support would push it toward the Russians.
• Palmerston proposed giving Austria vague assurances while offering Sardinia only limited support and allowing France and Austria to restrain each other.
• Palmerston concluded that Britain should avoid committing itself to either side and keep its diplomatic options open.

Franz and Felix prepared to exploit Russian support and Prussia’s ambitions, while the Austrian government set a trap for Czech revolutionaries in Prague. Rennes’s uprising seized the city but found the arsenal empty, leaving him to realize the rebels had been used as pawns.

• Franz told Felix that they could close the net after Tsar Nicholas I publicly offered to help Austria suppress the Italian Revolution.
• Corsen told Rennes that the Austrian government planned to execute more than a hundred political prisoners, prompting the revolutionaries to prepare an uprising.
• Rennes’s group gathered weapons from local nobles and capitalists and planned to act two nights later, unaware that their meeting had been reported to Prince Windisch-Grätz.
• Prince Windisch-Grätz pretended not to know of the plot and organized a field exercise that drew most of Prague’s police and troops away.
• On April 12, 1848, the revolutionaries seized Prague, but Corsen discovered that the arsenal was empty and Rennes realized the uprising had been set up.

Seven Czech nobles feared the Vienna government would punish them for their ties to the rebellion, and Count Kangdelai arrived as Prince Windisch-Grätz’s envoy to present the government’s terms. The nobles gathered to hear the conditions, which Kangdelai said were final and nonnegotiable.

• Count Kaluoqi urged the nobles to help suppress the rebellion and deny direct involvement to protect themselves.
• Count Scott warned that the Vienna government could confiscate the nobles’ fortunes and strip their families of titles and property.
• Count Kasiqi admitted Prince Windisch-Grätz’s envoy and sent the other nobles into an adjoining room to listen.
• Kangdelai revealed that he was Count Kasiqi’s cousin and had brought the Vienna government’s conditions.
• Count Kasiqi called the hidden nobles into the reception hall, and Kangdelai began to state the terms.

After suppressing the Prague uprising, Prince Windisch-Grätz appointed Kangdelai to direct German-language education in Bohemia, using nobles and state factories to spread German. The Vienna government then crushed the Galicia rebellion, purged Polish powerholders, and redistributed land to those who had helped suppress the revolt.

• Prince Windisch-Grätz retook Prague and ordered the execution of the uprising’s leaders, while public trials exposed notorious local elites.
• Prince Windisch-Grätz appointed Kangdelai Director-General of Education for Bohemia and tasked him with spreading German through schools, nobles, and factories.
• Kangdelai accepted the post and recognized that promoting German was likely to become Austrian national policy.
• Rebels seized much of Austrian Poland and formed a Polish Provisional Government before Austrian troops crushed the uprising in less than a week.
• The Vienna government executed more than twenty thousand people, confiscated land from rebel supporters, and gave plots to those who had helped suppress the revolt.