Chapter Summaries

Britain assessed Austria’s strategic goodwill and feared it was meant to turn Russia south while Austria dealt with France. As the Anti-Ottoman Alliance closed in on Ankara, Abdul Hamid II chose to prepare for a desperate defense in hopes of preserving the Ottoman Empire.

• Gladstone and Foreign Secretary George discussed Austria’s motives and predicted that it might encourage Russia to move into the subcontinent while Austria focused on France.
• Gladstone ordered India to prepare for trouble in Central Asia and Persia and warned France against provoking Austria.
• On November 18, 1882, the Anti-Ottoman Alliance united at the Kızılırmak River, cutting off western Asia Minor and leaving the Ottomans near collapse.
• Abdul Hamid II asked Midhat whether the Ottomans could still win, and Midhat said victory was nearly impossible but heavy casualties might force the alliance to negotiate.
• Abdul Hamid II decided to inspect the military camps and fight to preserve the Ottoman Empire and his throne.

The Near East War continued to devastate both sides as Prussia and Hanover merged into the North German Empire, alarming Russia and France. The chapter ended with French officials speculating that Austria had permitted the merger because it feared France.

• Franz reviewed reports of the Near East War’s immense military and civilian losses and noted that Austria’s resettlement costs might be reduced.
• On February 14, 1883, George I was crowned emperor of the Hanover-Prussian United Empire, completing North German unification.
• Alexander III rebuked Foreign Minister Oscar Jimenez for failing to prevent the merger, while Oscar blamed Austria’s distraction with the Near East battlefield.
• Napoleon IV considered intervening against the merger, but Terence Bulkin warned that Russia and Austria would not join France and France could not afford to act alone.
• Napoleon IV asked why Austria had delayed, and Army Minister Ruskinia Hafiz suggested that Austria might fear France.

Franz’s article on German unification stirred anti-British sentiment and helped isolate Britain after George I’s coronation. Gladstone and his ministers discussed how to repair Britain’s relations with Europe and prevent France, Russia, and Austria from forming an anti-British alliance.

• Franz congratulated George I and published an article urging North Germany to return to the Holy Roman Empire, while praising Britain’s role in the merger.
• European monarchs largely boycotted George I’s coronation, and Friedrich III excused himself on grounds of ill health.
• British newspapers celebrated the creation of the North German Empire as a diplomatic triumph, worsening Britain’s relations with France and Russia.
• Gladstone warned his ministers that Britain risked diplomatic isolation and retaliation from France, Russia, and Austria.
• George argued that Austria had drawn closer to Russia and that Britain needed time to repair its relations with other powers.
• Gladstone ordered a comprehensive adjustment of British diplomacy to keep France from aligning with Austria and Russia.

As the Allied forces refused Ottoman surrender, Abdul Hamid II ordered the Destruction Plan and vowed to fight to the end. Meanwhile, Chile, Bolivia, and Peru concluded the Guano War, while Austria’s covert-backed Panama independence movement expanded across Colombia.

• Marshal Ivanov refused Ottoman representatives’ request to negotiate and ordered that no further surrender talks be entertained.
• Grand Vizier Midhat told Abdul Hamid II that Ivanov had rejected negotiations, so Abdul Hamid II activated the Destruction Plan.
• Chile, Bolivia, and Peru reached a peace settlement that gave Chile the Atacama Desert and left Bolivia landlocked.
• Austria’s Panama Independence Organization seized a quarter of Colombia, as Austrian-backed colonial groups pressed farther into the country.

Austria debated whether to end the Colombian civil war after securing Panama, and Franz ordered negotiations to begin. In Baghdad, General Morkes rejected a proposal to spread plague and offered the Iraqi defenders safe passage, leaving them three days to depart.

• On April 7, 1883, Colombia requested peace and invited Britain, France, Spain, and Austria to mediate the civil war.
• Stephen urged Austria to continue its advance in Colombia, while Wessenberg warned that occupying the country could provoke Britain and South America.
• Franz ordered Austria to negotiate and end the war if Colombia made concessions, prioritizing the Near East and the Panama region.
• At Baghdad, Sammons suggested poisoning the city with plague, but Morkes refused because the consequences could spiral out of control.
• Morkes ordered the siege lines loosened and leaflets dropped, promising the defenders safe passage with their weapons and belongings if they left within three days.

Baghdad’s Ottoman officials accepted Morkes’s offer to leave the city in exchange for their lives and safety, then fled with their portable wealth. In Vienna, Franz and Wessenberg discussed exploiting their route through Persia to eliminate most of them.

• The Khedive persuaded Baghdad’s officials that defeat was inevitable and that Austrian promises were credible.
• The Khedive explained that the officials could not take the nearly hundred thousand soldiers with them, since Persia would block such a force and the soldiers’ families remained in Ottoman territory.
• The officials finished packing on the first day and left Baghdad in a large procession, while Morkes honored his agreement to let them pass.
• Franz learned of the deal and judged that allowing the officials to leave had sped up Austria’s advance, though they could remain a nuisance abroad.
• Wessenberg proposed sending agents into Persia and using Persian forces—or Austrian troops if necessary—to eliminate the fleeing officials and manage the diplomatic fallout afterward.

General Morkes planned to drive Mesopotamia’s population out to secure Austria’s oil fields, while Franz and his government debated where to resettle millions of Ottoman refugees. The chapter ended with Austria weighing colonial resettlement, transferring refugees to the Kingdom of Armenia, or pushing them into Persia.

• General Morkes ordered Dennis to spread a rumor that Austria would ban farming and livestock raising in Mesopotamia for twenty years, hoping residents would leave voluntarily.
• Morkes explained that Austria wanted to depopulate Mesopotamia to secure its vast oil reserves, and he proposed inciting refugees to force their way into Persia or opening a border gap by staging a misunderstanding.
• Franz learned that millions of Ottoman prisoners and refugees needed to be relocated, while the United States of America would accept only able-bodied workers.
• Prime Minister Felix presented three resettlement plans: move the refugees to Austria’s colonies, send them to the soon-to-be-established Kingdom of Armenia, or provoke a war and drive them into Persia.

Franz weighed where to settle millions of Ottoman refugees and chose subsidized emigration to the Americas, leaving their long-term settlement unresolved. In Saint Petersburg, Alexander III and his ministers debated Austria’s demand for an Armenian buffer state and whether Russia might trade territory for compensation.

• Franz rejected Africa, New Guinea, the Arctic islands, Patagonia, and other proposed destinations as unsuitable for settling millions of refugees.
• Franz ordered the government to subsidize immigrants sent to the United States of America at 40 Divine Shield each and those sent to other American countries at 35 Divine Shield each.
• Alexander III told his ministers that Austria wanted the Armenians to establish an independent state in Russia’s Caucasus region as a buffer between the empires.
• Zirnomer opposed Austria’s proposal, while Alisher Gulov suggested discussing compensation and possibly ceding barren land to the Armenians.
• Alexander III considered the possibility that Austria was testing Russia’s willingness to sell territory, but he recognized that Russia had previously surrendered Alaska because it could not defend it.

Alexander III considered Austria’s offer to pay Russia to evacuate people from its newly occupied Ottoman territories, suspecting the costly operation concealed a deeper motive. With Russia burdened by war damage and debt, his ministers argued over selling the Asia Minor Peninsula, and he left the decision open while ordering an investigation into Austria’s plans.

• Alexander III told his ministers to investigate resources in the occupied regions before negotiating with Austria and said Russia should focus on its own affairs.
• Foreign Minister Oscar Jimenez reported that Austria was offering resettlement fees to evacuate people from Asia Minor because of a supposed Black Death outbreak, and described rumors about oil and a railway to Baghdad.
• Alexander III ordered Oscar Jimenez to uncover Austria’s true purpose before Russia considered joining the evacuation effort.
• Finance Minister Alisher Gulov proposed selling most of Russia’s newly occupied Asia Minor territory to Austria to raise money and reduce Russia’s financial burdens.
• Army Minister Paladru Wald objected that Russian territory should not be sold, and he and Alisher Gulov argued over the proposal and postwar pensions.
• Alexander III stopped the quarrel and said the possible sale required comprehensive consideration, while appearing inclined to accept Austria’s offer.

As British and Austrian dumping deepened France’s economic crisis, Napoleon IV’s ministers debated withdrawing from free trade and gathering allies to form a protectionist bloc. Napoleon IV approved the withdrawal and ordered the Foreign Ministry to seek allies and limit international backlash.

• Elsa urged France to leave the free-trade system and lead countries in resisting British and Austrian dumping.
• Terence Bulkin argued that Belgium and North Germany would not trust French promises or abandon the benefits of trade with Britain and Austria.
• Elsa and Roy Vernon cited the United States and France’s dangerous debt as reasons to change course.
• Napoleon IV approved leaving free trade and ordered the Foreign Ministry to recruit allies and explain France’s decision to other countries.

After the United States of America and France abandoned free trade, Franz chose to halt Austria’s dumping strategy and pursue France’s political isolation. Britain responded by restarting negotiations with Austria over guarantees for Persia’s security while seeking to preserve the free trade system.

• Reinhard Hardegen reported that the French and American tariff barriers had shaken markets and threatened Austrian businesses, and recommended immediate countermeasures.
• Wessenberg urged Austria to limit its response to matching tariff increases and wait for Britain to act.
• Franz ordered an end to Austria’s dumping strategy and directed the Foreign Ministry to isolate France politically.
• In London, Cornell Botchers warned that France and the United States of America had weakened Britain’s recovering economy and endangered free trade.
• George proposed trade sanctions, but Hugh Childers argued that an embargo would be ineffective and costly.
• Gladstone ordered Anglo-Austrian negotiations to resume over Persia’s security and instructed Britain to stabilize the free trade system.

After the Ottoman Empire fell, Franz considered the postwar settlement and approved negotiations to buy the Asia Minor Peninsula from Russia. He was left facing a mountain of reconstruction and immigration plans, including concerns that the proposed Dardanelles Bridge would soon become outdated.

• On July 12, 1883, the Russian Army captured Ankara, took Grand Vizier Midhat alive, and the Ottoman Empire declared its demise.
• Wessenberg told Franz that the Tsarist Government was willing to sell part of its territorial spoils for cash, and Karl explained that Russia could not afford to rebuild and administer the devastated regions.
• Franz ordered negotiations with Russia to proceed quickly and offered five outdated battleships as an added incentive to complete the deal within a week.
• Franz reviewed postwar plans for immigration, the Baghdad Railway, and the Dardanelles Bridge, and worried that the bridge design would need rebuilding once automobiles became widespread.

British leaders assessed Austria’s growing power after its victory over the Ottoman Empire and discussed how to prevent it from becoming dominant. They concluded that Austria’s military was its main weakness and proposed dragging it into a war to weaken it.

• Foreign Secretary George told Gladstone that Britain had agreed with Austria on Middle Eastern spheres of influence in exchange for Austria’s promise not to expand into Persia.
• George reported evidence that Austria was relocating Ottoman populations while Russia delayed setting up an administration, suggesting Russia might trade its Ottoman inheritance for Austrian financial compensation.
• Gladstone and Astley Cooper Key warned that Austria’s expanded territory could make it rival the Roman Empire, while Hugh Childers argued that much of the land was difficult to develop.
• George said Austria had restored forests and grasslands in some regions, including around Jerusalem, through population relocation and the Land Fallowing Act.
• Gladstone called for Britain to curb Austria’s growth or sabotage a possible Russo-Austrian deal, and George proposed drawing Austria into war to wear down its strength.

Russia, Austria, Greece, and Montenegro negotiated the division of Ottoman spoils, but Russia and Austria had already settled their interests in a treaty that left Greece’s territorial claims in doubt. The four powers ended by signing a joint warning against anyone sheltering Ottoman remnants.

• Wessenberg invited the four allies to state their demands, and Vtoriak sought Ottoman territory along the Sea of Marmara while Nislav demanded the Izmir region.
• Nicholas Cage asked for economic compensation instead of territory, and Wessenberg offered Montenegro a share of Austrian spoils and an active first-rate battleship, which Nicholas accepted.
• Vtoriak received a telegram confirming Russia and Austria had signed a treaty in which Russia renounced its Ottoman claims in exchange for compensation and other terms.
• Wessenberg urged Nislav to abandon Izmir and accept compensation on Montenegro’s terms, while Vtoriak proposed setting the dispute aside.
• Wessenberg, Vtoriak, Nislav, and Nicholas signed the Convention of the Four Anti-Ottoman Powers, declaring the Ottoman Empire had perished and threatening military action against anyone protecting its remnants.

Ludwig I abandoned Greece’s industrialization reforms and territorial claims under nationalist and political pressure, while Greece negotiated its share of the postwar settlement. The chapter left the Greek Government facing the difficult resettlement of hundreds of thousands of Greeks from the former Ottoman Empire.

• Franz welcomed the Austria-Russia agreement and expected Greece to accept the loss of its claims soon.
• Ludwig I faced demonstrations against abandoning Asia Minor and industrial reforms, then agreed to cancel industrial plans and lift the cotton export ban.
• On October 13, 1883, Greece renounced its claims on the Asia Minor Peninsula and received compensation consisting of two battleships, with an offer to buy additional warships at half price.
• Ludwig I asked what would happen to Greeks in the Ottoman Empire, and Nislav said Austria had assigned their relocation to Russia, which demanded that Greece take them or accept a mass relocation.
• Kalioxiu urged the government to protect its compatriots from Russian relocation, while Nislav described Austria’s proposal to divide migrants among Greece, Armenia, the Americas, and Austria.
• Ludwig I accepted abandoning some Ottoman-loyal Greek hardliners to Russia, though he regretted the limits on Greece’s resettlement plans.

Franz agreed to let Russia support Grand Duke Vladimir Alexandrovich as King of Armenia, while expecting Russia to bear the costs of establishing the new kingdom. He left open the possibility of British and French investment but ruled out Austrian spending unless no alternative remained.

• Wessenberg told Franz that Russia was lobbying Armenian leaders to elect Grand Duke Vladimir Alexandrovich and had offered unrestricted trade through Batumi if Austria did not object.
• Franz learned that Russia would not surrender Batumi but had made it the grand duke’s fief, and he agreed to let Russia have its preferred candidate.
• Felix warned that Armenia required tens of millions of Divine Shields to resettle its population and rebuild, which Russia might not be able to afford.
• Franz argued that Russia could fund Armenia in installments from its reduced debt payments and said British and French capital could be invited if needed.
• Franz concluded that Austria should avoid investing in Armenia because it needed its capital for rebuilding the newly acquired Asia Minor Peninsula.

Britain debated how to respond to Russia and Austria’s growing influence after Grand Duke Vladimir Alexandrovich gained the Armenian throne, while Gladstone argued for renewed isolation. Franz reviewed Austria’s Near East development plan and grew concerned at the projected costs.

• Grand Duke Vladimir Alexandrovich took the Armenian throne with Vienna’s support, alarming the British Government over Russia and Austria’s potential pressure on Persia, Central Asia, and India.
• Foreign Minister George proposed supporting France and North Germany and exploiting rivalries to restrain Russia and Austria, but Hugh Childers warned that the plan could backfire.
• Prime Minister Gladstone rejected deeper involvement in continental disputes and advocated returning to Britain’s policy of Splendid Isolation.
• Franz dismissed the likelihood of Russia, France, and Austria uniting against Britain while Austria remained powerful and its potential partners were weakened.
• Prime Minister Felix presented Austria’s three-phase Near East development plan, including a Vienna-to-Baghdad trunk railway, immigrant settlements, and coastal resettlement.
• Franz examined the plan’s map and immigration proposal, then frowned at the final budget estimate.

Franz approved publicizing the Near East development plan to attract investors after its costs exceeded the initial budget. He also reviewed postwar demobilization, compensation, and land grants, ordering payments and land allocation preparations to begin while scheduling the noble investiture ceremony for Christmas Eve.

• Prime Minister Felix explained that war damage and the need to import construction materials had driven the Near East development budget above expectations.
• Franz ordered the Near East development plan released to the public to attract investors and revive local industries.
• War Minister Feslav presented the military honors, demobilization, casualty compensation, and military merit land applications from the Near East War.
• Franz ordered cash payments distributed and land-grant preparations started, with regions chosen before specific parcels were allocated.
• Franz scheduled the noble investiture ceremony for the day before Christmas and assigned its arrangements to the cabinet.

The Vienna Government’s Near East development plan attracted domestic and foreign investment, but investors avoided railway projects, leaving the government to take the lead. The Imperial Parliament designated the Near East as territory directly administered by the imperial family, and Franz formalized land grants for newly ennobled soldiers.

• The Vienna Government publicized its billion Divine Shield investment, drawing capital toward the Near East development plan while investors shunned railway construction.
• The government took responsibility for railway development after ports, docks, and urban renovation projects attracted private interest.
• The Imperial Parliament voted to place Asia Minor, the Middle East, and the Arabian Peninsula under direct administration by the imperial family.
• Franz reserved undeveloped wasteland as imperial property while assigning fertile land, pasture, and woodland as rewards for military service.
• After the ennoblement ceremony, Franz led the newly risen nobles in marking their land grants on a map.

An epidemic broke out in Ankara and disrupted Austria’s Near East development plan as Russia halted immigration. Russian investigators identified the disease as plague and concluded the Ottomans had deliberately spread it, leaving Lieutenant General Okinets facing blame after the outbreak had already begun.

• Prime Minister Felix told Franz that an epidemic was spreading through Ankara and had infected Russian soldiers, prompting Franz to order epidemic precautions and suspend immigration.
• Lieutenant General Okinets learned from military doctor Kozhemyaka that the disease was plague and considered sealing off the Asia Minor Peninsula while awaiting Saint Petersburg’s decision.
• Russian soldiers Valentin and Vitaly followed rats into a house and discovered a hidden room filled with rotting corpses, then reported it for burning.
• More hidden chambers of corpses were found across Ankara, and the reports reached Lieutenant General Okinets.
• Lieutenant General Okinets concluded that the Ottoman Government had deliberately created an epidemic as an indiscriminate biological attack, but realized the plague had already spread and that he could be blamed.