Chapter Summaries

Archduke Karl led Austria’s invasion of Venetian territory and captured Udine after the French staged a retreat. As Karl planned to attack Verona, he learned that the French Crown Prince had arrived in Northern Italy with thirty thousand elite troops.

• After Austria declared war, Archduke Karl ordered his army to cross the Soča River and sent Milius and Würmser to seize positions around Udine.
• More than a hundred thousand Austrian troops crossed the river, while Milius captured Cervignano and Würmser advanced on Tolmezzo.
• On September 5, Austrian forces besieged Udine, and their Wind Guns broke through the French defensive lines.
• Victor ordered the French troops to withdraw toward Pordenone, leaving Venetian soldiers to surrender in Udine while the French evaded Milius’s interception.
• Archduke Karl received news that the French Crown Prince had brought thirty thousand elite troops to Northern Italy to command its defense.

Archduke Karl’s Austrian forces advanced toward Mantua while he planned to encircle it with Prussian and Hanoverian troops. Meanwhile, the English invasion of the Netherlands stalled when the Dutch flooded Utrecht, so Sir Moore withdrew and retaliated by destroying more dams, threatening catastrophic flooding.

• Archduke Karl ordered Austrian corps to seize towns north of Mantua, and the French retreated as the Austrians reached the Mincio River.
• Joseph arrived in Mantua with fewer than 3,000 soldiers, but Archduke Karl mistook the French defenses for a force of around 100,000 and prepared to encircle the fortress with Blücher’s army.
• Sir John Moore led 20,000 English troops into the Netherlands, driving the Dutch army back toward Utrecht as the North Sea Fleet blockaded the coast.
• Dandels persuaded the Dutch Parliament to breach dikes and flood the Utrecht Plain, stopping the English advance and forcing Sir Moore to retreat to Zwolle.
• Sir Moore ordered his troops to destroy every dam on Veluwemeer, and the English then headed toward Nijmegen, putting the southern Netherlands at risk of flooding.

Lefebvre led French troops toward Nijmegen after the Dutch surrendered, while French commanders on the Rhine faced a new threat from Picton’s corps near Mannheim. In Switzerland, Austrian Commander Friedrich von Hotze learned that the Swiss had rejected Austria’s demand.

• Lefebvre arrived in Flanders and learned that the Dutch had surrendered after the English Army threatened the Waal River dikes.
• Sean Hayes urged Lefebvre to defend Antwerp, while General Taine proposed Breda, but Lefebvre ordered the French troops to continue toward Nijmegen.
• Saint-Cyr and Augereau learned that Picton’s corps had appeared near Mannheim with more than fifty thousand soldiers and attacked Worms.
• Augereau warned that moving General Surt’s troops from Karlsruhe could leave Baden exposed, so the French commanders awaited the General Staff Headquarters’ decision.
• An Austrian diplomatic official told Friedrich von Hotze that the Swiss had refused Austria’s demand.

Hotze and Blücher’s forces invaded Switzerland and advanced toward France and Italy while France failed to respond. Alarmed by the Allies’ rapid gains, Alexander I abandoned his wait-and-see approach, joined the Anti-French Alliance on favorable terms, and sent Russian troops toward Italy.

• Hotze and Blücher led 30,000 Allied soldiers in an attack that forced Switzerland to surrender Zurich, then split their forces toward Lausanne and Northern Italy.
• Alexander I praised Speransky’s serf reform proposal but rejected its implementation to protect the nobles’ interests.
• After reading a report of the Allies’ advances, Alexander I ordered Vorontsov to negotiate Russia’s entry into the Anti-French Coalition with Lord Hawkesbury.
• Vorontsov signed an agreement under which Russia promised at least 60,000 troops in exchange for English financial and military aid and Allied support for Russian interests.
• Alexander I ordered Suvorov to join the war, and Russian forces under Suvorov and Kossakov began moving toward Italy.

Suvorov approved Archduke Karl’s Allied campaign plan in Vienna, while Massena maneuvered to block Austrian forces in Switzerland after receiving a request from Swiss officials to defend their neutrality. In the Netherlands, Moore prepared to cross the Waal River and advance toward Groesbeek.

• Suvorov traveled to Vienna, reviewed the Allied deployment plan, and learned that Archduke Karl had devised it.
• Massena learned that Allied troops had occupied Zurich, then received Swiss representatives asking France to protect Switzerland’s neutrality.
• Massena ordered a forced march toward Zurich, and Davout led additional troops into Switzerland.
• Massena’s scouts spotted about twenty thousand Austrian troops near Lake Biel, and he ordered the situation reported to General Staff Headquarters before preparing to stop them.
• Moore learned that no Flemish troops had been found, then ordered his soldiers across the Waal River to rest at Groesbeek.

Lefebvre’s French forces ambushed and routed Moore’s unprepared army at the Waal River, then planned to advance toward Groningen and raid Hanover. The chapter ends with Hotze urging sluggish Hanoverian soldiers in Switzerland to hurry before the French learn of their position.

• Moore learned that his troops had finished crossing the Waal, but French forces suddenly attacked both flanks while the English soldiers were unprepared.
• French artillery and infantry overwhelmed the English troops on the south bank, while Lefebvre ordered cannons to bombard the pontoon bridges and cut off their retreat.
• The French routed all thirteen thousand English soldiers on the south bank, capturing more than 8,700 and killing or drowning at least 3,000; Moore watched from across the river.
• Lefebvre declined to pursue the fleeing English and instead planned to march with Gaayar toward Groningen, then raid Hanover.
• The next morning, Lefebvre sent his operation plan to General Staff Headquarters as approval for his Waal River attack arrived.
• In Switzerland, Hotze ordered his sluggish Hanoverian troops near Lake Biel to move faster before the French discovered them.

Hotze’s Allied forces encountered Massena’s French army at the Aare River, where Massena launched a surprise crossing and routed the unprepared defenders. By morning, the French had captured thousands of stragglers as Hotze retreated toward Solthurn Town.

• Hotze learned that a French force had attacked his Engineer Battalion and ordered the Vogel Regiment to feint while the rest of his army planned to outflank the French downstream.
• Massena confirmed that no other enemy forces were nearby, then ordered preparations for an evening attack and an early dinner for his troops.
• The French 3rd Infantry Division crossed the Aare River by raft and on foot, surprising the Allied forces before they could form a defense.
• Oudinot led four thousand French skirmishers against the Austrian right wing, and their accurate rifle volleys broke the Hanoverian Legion and triggered a widespread rout.
• Hotze failed to restore order and retreated toward Solthurn Town as Allied soldiers scattered through the darkness.
• The next morning, Massena arrived on the north bank and saw French soldiers escorting three or four thousand captured stragglers.

Massena explained how Sérurier’s concealed march through the Porrentruy Valley would threaten the Allied retreat routes in Switzerland, while Oudinot warned that the enemy might escape through the St. Gotthard Pass. In Lombardy, Joseph reviewed the campaign and heard Moreau begin explaining a plan to counter Archduke Karl’s expected attack on Mantua.

• Oudinot praised Massena for defeating Hotze’s detachment, and Massena revealed that Sérurier was approaching Basel by a secret route through the Porrentruy Valley.
• Massena explained that Sérurier could seize Zurich and cut off the Allied forces’ retreat, while his own troops would block the road to Lausanne.
• Oudinot pointed out that Blücher and Hotze could still retreat through the St. Gotthard Pass into Lombardy.
• Berthier reported that Massena had devastated Hotze’s legion and that Sérurier had captured Zurich, while Hotze remained missing and Blücher was nearing Altdorf.
• Joseph confirmed that Ney’s troops were defending the St. Gotthard Pass and discussed the expected Allied advance into Lombardy.
• Moreau proposed withdrawing the Mantua garrison and began explaining that Archduke Karl would likely attack west of Mantua to join Blücher.

Moreau planned to use the Fifth Army Corps to raid Austrian forces and supply lines while Joseph arranged additional measures to protect Mantua. In the Alps, Blücher learned that the French had taken Zurich and estimated he had ten to twelve days before the news could affect his march.

• Moreau proposed sending the Fifth Army Corps across the Po River to strike Austrian forces before Archduke Karl could concentrate, while Berthier warned that Mantua would be dangerously exposed.
• Victor raised the risk that the raiding force could face a superior Austrian army, and Joseph proposed threatening Trento to disrupt Austrian movements without weakening the defenses.
• Joseph approved transferring Local Forces to Mantua, and a staff officer reported that General Soldano had arrived at Marcaria with seven thousand Spanish soldiers.
• A messenger told Blücher that French troops had occupied Zurich five days earlier and that rioters had burned the supply warehouse.
• Blücher concluded that the French likely knew of his intentions but estimated he had ten to twelve days before the news reached Mantua and prompted a response.

Blücher’s Prussian army was trapped by Ney’s defenses at St. Gotthard Pass and retreated toward Switzerland, where it encountered the remnants of Hotze’s forces. Meanwhile, Moreau crossed the Po River, found Werneck’s Austrian corps, and attacked it by surprise.

• Blücher tried to force his way through St. Gotthard Pass, but Ney’s artillery repelled three Prussian assaults and forced the main army back toward Switzerland.
• On the return journey, Blücher encountered the remnants of Hotze’s forces amid the snowfall.
• Moreau led the French Fifth Army Corps across the Po River and learned that Werneck’s corps was near Montecchio.
• Moreau split his forces, sending Victor to intercept Werneck and MacDonald to block Austrian reinforcements from Vicenza.
• Moreau’s vanguard caught Werneck’s corps by surprise, and the Austrian general hurriedly formed a defensive position and sent for help.
• Moreau’s horse artillery opened fire as a large body of French soldiers advanced toward Werneck’s flank.

Baron Werneck’s Austrian forces faced a French attack that used balloon reconnaissance, rapid-fire revolvers, accurate rifles, and Horse Artillery to inflict heavy losses. Werneck ordered a mass bayonet charge against the French Skirmishers, who prepared to keep firing as the Austrians advanced.

• Werneck deployed Austrian Horse Artillery and reserves while the French Army advanced toward his line.
• Moreau sent four Hussar companies against the Austrian cavalry, and French Hussars used Joseph 1797 Revolvers to fire six volleys and disrupt them.
• The French Skirmisher Cluster fired accurate volleys that killed hundreds of Austrian soldiers, while French Horse Artillery battered the Austrian left wing.
• Werneck ordered the Austrian army to advance and fire, but the French used cover and continued shooting until the Austrian left wing broke.
• Werneck ordered the entire army to charge with bayonets, and Savary told the French soldiers to maintain free fire as more than thirteen thousand Austrians surged forward.

Moreau defeated Werneck’s Austrian corps and advanced into Venice’s heartland toward Treviso, while Victor diverted toward Padua. Austrian intelligence reported a French buildup at St. Gotthard Pass, leaving Archduke Karl to wonder what the French were planning.

• Moreau’s forces routed Werneck’s corps, killing thousands and dispersing more than ten thousand prisoners, while Werneck escaped.
• Moreau ordered his troops toward Treviso and called Victor and MacDonald’s corps to rejoin him.
• Victor avoided a larger Austrian force, then chose to investigate Padua after suspecting it had been left lightly defended.
• French spies reported more than ten thousand troops and dozens of heavy guns at St. Gotthard Pass, and a messenger carried the news toward Verona.
• Archduke Karl questioned Radetzky about French intentions after the French Crown Prince led troops north around Lake Garda.

Archduke Karl tried to reinforce Trento and coordinate an Allied attack on St. Gotthard Pass, but French surprise attacks at Montecchio and Padua forced him to divert troops from the Mantua front. Outside Padua, Victor learned Austrian reinforcements had reached Teolo and faced the need to withdraw before being surrounded.

• Archduke Karl ordered reinforcements sent to Trento and considered attacking the Mantua line, but learned that French forces had blocked the Prussian Corps at St. Gotthard Pass.
• Archduke Karl sent secret letters to Blücher and Sardinia proposing a simultaneous attack on the pass.
• A staff officer reported that Werneck’s corps had been ambushed near Montecchio and that thirty thousand French soldiers were advancing north, so Archduke Karl deployed more than sixty-five thousand troops along the Brenta River.
• Archduke Karl sent Mikhalevich with ten thousand soldiers to reinforce Padua after French troops besieged the city.
• Victor watched for Austrian reinforcements outside Padua, and his Rangers reported that Austrian troops had reached Teolo on the fourth day of the siege.

French forces under Moreau escaped a major Austrian encirclement and returned to their own lines after crossing the Po River. Meanwhile, Emmanuel IV committed Sardinia to an attack on St. Gotthard Pass, and General Pilo approached the pass unaware that French and Parma troops were following him.

• Mason avoided fighting near Trento, then withdrew toward Mantua when the Austrians launched a probing attack.
• Moreau evaded Schwarzenberg's forces, ambushed Austrian cavalry south of Malo, and crossed the Adige before attacking Castel Massa.
• Moreau's exhausted troops captured Castel Massa and crossed the Po, bringing the French Fifth Army Corps safely back to friendly lines.
• Emmanuel IV weighed the risks of attacking the French at St. Gotthard Pass and, after praying, summoned Baron Stara.
• Pilo marched from Novara toward St. Gotthard Pass after Adenauer failed to arrive, unaware that French and Parma troops were following him.

Pilo and Blücher launched attacks against the French at St. Gotthard Pass, but Joubert’s forces ambushed the Sardinians and routed them before they could aid the Prussians. After repeated failed assaults and heavy losses, Blücher ordered his army to retreat to Altdorf.

• Pilo and Blücher prepared to attack the French simultaneously, and the Blücher Legion began its assault on St. Gotthard Pass at ten thirty.
• Pilo delayed the Sardinian attack until the Prussians had drawn French fire, then sent more than ten thousand soldiers toward the pass.
• Joubert’s Hussars and French columns struck the Sardinian rear and flank while the Parma Army advanced behind them, routing Pilo’s forces.
• Blücher launched another major assault when he heard cannon fire from the south, but the Sardinian guns fell silent and the French defenses remained firm.
• After suffering heavy casualties and failing to break through, Blücher ordered his army to retreat to Altdorf.

Joseph awarded Moreau and the raiding force for delaying Austria’s advance, then arranged a collective summit to decide Sardinia’s partition. The chapter ended with news that Russia and fresh Austrian troops were moving toward the front, prompting Joseph to prepare for a wider war.

• Joseph and Berthier awarded more than three hundred and forty medals to Moreau’s raiders and the Crown Prince’s Guard Grenadier Battalion.
• Segur presented Joseph with a plan to relocate Sardinia’s royal family and divide its territories among neighboring states.
• Joseph ordered a Mediterranean Security Organization summit so member states could vote on Sardinia’s punishment, and he signed the partition plan.
• Berthier reported that Suvorov had led sixty thousand Russian troops to Vienna and that Duke Castelanza was bringing seventy thousand new Austrian soldiers toward Klagenfurt.
• Joseph resolved to mobilize France’s full potential as the enemy forces approached.

Joseph promised to raise 150,000 new French troops by February and planned a counterattack, while Archduke Karl ordered Russian forces to reinforce Switzerland. The chapter left Suvorov defying that order and Joseph preparing a campaign to expose Alexander I’s alleged patricide.

• Joseph told the French generals that 150,000 newly recruited troops would reach the front by February and ordered preparations for a full-front counterattack.
• Archduke Karl sent Picton to reinforce Blücher in Switzerland, then ordered Suvorov’s Russian army to go there instead of entering Northern Italy.
• Suvorov objected to the Austrian deployment and ordered his army to turn west while he prepared to write to Archduke Karl.
• Joseph sailed from Genoa toward Marseille and revised Baron Scheller’s manuscript accusing Alexander I of arranging Paul I’s murder.
• Joseph sent the manuscript back to Paris for publication and confirmed that a letter to Viscount Olivier was on its way to Kursk.

Joseph prepared to use the Declaration of Human Rights as France’s answer to the Anti-French Alliance, believing it could strengthen the country and inspire its people. After gaining Louis XVI and Queen Mary’s support, he summoned the Cabinet and Paris’s influential nobles to Versailles, where guards stood ready as the declaration’s introduction began.

• Joseph considered the risks to French investments in Russia’s Donbas Region and relied on Viscount Olivier to cooperate in securing compensation.
• Joseph reviewed the completed Declaration of Human Rights aboard a river transport ship and decided France should lead Europe in promoting its principles.
• Joseph assured Queen Mary and Louis XVI that the decree would strengthen France without immediately surrendering the royal family’s governing authority.
• Louis XVI and Queen Mary agreed to support Joseph’s plan despite their concerns about opposition from nobles and the loss of royal powers.
• The next day, French Cabinet Members and influential Paris nobles gathered in the Hall of Mirrors with copies of the declaration as Crown Prince’s Personal Guard Grenadiers assembled outside.

Joseph and Louis XVI formally introduced and implemented the Declaration of Human Rights, winning support from soldiers and nobles in Versailles. The next day, Parisians embraced the declaration and gathered in huge numbers outside the palace to praise the King and Crown Prince.

• Prévédiche and the Grenadier Battalion enthusiastically supported the Declaration of Human Rights as Lieutenant Colonel Mason and Cruset explained it.
• Viscount Varennes defended equality before the nobles in the Hall of Mirrors, and Mirabeau praised the declaration.
• Louis XVI announced that he had signed the declaration and asked Joseph to explain it to the assembled nobles.
• Joseph defended freedom and equality as protections for every French citizen, then announced that France would implement the declaration immediately.
• Newspapers printed the declaration, and nearly ten thousand Parisians gathered outside Versailles Palace to acclaim Louis XVI and Joseph.

Paris celebrated the Declaration of Human Rights as Joseph prepared parliamentary reforms and redirected railway construction toward the coming war. He learned that recruitment had overwhelmed the army’s facilities, with nearly every young man in Paris reportedly enlisting.

• Tressaguet heard Parisians celebrate their new rights and explained Joseph’s proposed two-chamber Parliament to his assistant.
• Joseph ordered most railway projects suspended, accelerated the Nancy Line, and directed plans to extend it to Strasbourg.
• Baron Gotesheim told Joseph that recruitment had exceeded the General Staff’s capacity, with 36,000 people enlisted in the Paris Region alone.
• Gotesheim asked whether the Army Officer Academy and Military Technical School could temporarily house new recruits.