Chapter Summaries

Joseph reviewed France’s doctoral admissions and approved expanding the number of places by creating funded research groups to support advisors and students. He also advised Thomas Young to study wave optics and recognized the value Gauss’s statistical work could have for mapping and railway construction.

• Leroy and Delnave asked Joseph to address the fierce competition for doctoral places, and he rejected reducing foreign students’ share.
• Joseph recognized Thomas Young among the applicants and insisted that France admit talented researchers regardless of nationality.
• After reviewing the admitted candidates and seeing Thénard had been rejected, Joseph approved increasing doctoral places and proposed research groups to support advisors.
• Joseph promised government and Innovation Fund support for research groups, and Leroy and Delnave welcomed the plan.
• Joseph suggested that Thomas Young pursue interference and wave optics instead of system energetics.
• Joseph noted that Gauss’s work on probability and statistics could improve triangulation and make France’s mapping and railway surveys more efficient.

Joseph reviewed doctoral students’ research proposals and redirected several toward projects he considered more useful to France. His suggestions led Gauss to apply least squares to map surveying, persuaded Biot to join Kulen’s electrical communication research, and left Thénard agreeing to study synthetic dyes instead of ammonia production.

• Joseph told Delnave to have Gauss apply probability theory and least squares to map surveying errors, and recommended that Biot switch from optics to electrical research with Kulen.
• Joseph directed Malus toward the Engineering Design Institute to study polarized light and cannon defects, and suggested that Seebeck pursue electricity and magnetism.
• After Joseph reviewed the first twenty-six applications, Gauss realized that least squares could reconcile surveying observations and began writing formulas.
• Delnave told Biot about Kulen and Volt’s stable-current battery and long-distance electrical communication device, and Biot agreed to try the research.
• Berthollet explained that Joseph preferred synthetic dyes to Thénard’s proposed ammonia synthesis, and Thénard reluctantly agreed to change his research topic.

Charles learned that Josiah and the other Roman revolutionaries had refused to flee, so he risked defying his brother and rushed to Rome to help them. He reached the Civic Guard headquarters and was welcomed by Josiah and the insurgents, who looked to him to lead them.

• Charles learned that Archbishop Consalvi had issued five passes, but Josiah and the other revolutionaries had refused to leave Rome.
• Charles decided to travel to Rome, took a detour to Genoa, and arranged money and a steamship for the journey.
• Four days later, Charles entered Rome disguised as a Cultivator while Baron Bergeron worried about the danger.
• Charles arrived at Santa Sabina Basilica and asked where Josiah was.
• Josiah welcomed Charles, and the insurgents gathered around him, declaring that he would lead them against the Neapolitan troops.

Charles took command of the Roman rebels, promised them pay and rewards, and led a counterattack on the Colosseum that failed against the Neapolitan forces. As Charles despaired over the defeat, Major Jean-Jacques Étienne Luca learned Prince Charles was still trapped in Rome and felt compelled to rescue him.

• Charles ordered Puccini to gather troops for a surprise attack on the Colosseum and promised Civic Guard recruits regular pay and rewards, showing them 65,000 Francs.
• Charles gave a speech to the rebel soldiers and sent Puccini to lead their assault while he watched from a bell tower.
• Neapolitan cannons and disciplined infantry halted the rebel advance, and Charles ordered a retreat after the rebels suffered casualties and enemy reinforcements arrived.
• Josiah thanked Charles for helping recruit more than 800 soldiers, but Charles remained despondent over the failed attack.
• At Fiumicino Port, Major Jean-Jacques Étienne Luca learned from Baron Bergeron that Prince Charles was still in Rome and resolved to get him out safely.

Kamas persuaded Luca and Denipol to launch an unauthorized rescue of Prince Charles under the name of the Mediterranean Security Organization. The improvised force landed near Rome, and the French soldiers marched inland while their foreign allies stayed behind.

• Kamas told Luca that Prince Charles was likely in danger in Rome and proposed sending troops disguised as a Security Organization expedition.
• Luca agreed to the plan after Kamas argued that failing to rescue Charles could bring even worse consequences than disobeying orders.
• Denipol recruited soldiers and ships from Genoa, Milan, and Lucca to join the French force.
• The temporary fleet reached Trajan's Canal, and Denipol landed more than eight hundred men as the supposed Security Organization Expeditionary Force.
• The foreign troops stayed near the beach while the six hundred French soldiers marched toward Rome.

On July 29, 1802, Denipol led the Montpellier Third Dragoon Regiment into Rome through a gap in the southern wall and captured Saint Paul's Gate. As the Naples Army moved to counterattack, Denipol’s outnumbered force charged and routed its troops, leaving the advance toward the rebel headquarters at Santa Sabina Basilica unresolved.

• Kamas guided Denipol and 600 Montpellier Third Dragoon Regiment soldiers to an unguarded breach in Rome’s southern wall.
• Denipol ordered his troops to seize the breach, and they killed or captured the Naples guards defending it.
• Denipol’s force entered the city and captured Saint Paul's Gate after a brief fight.
• Colonel Gagliardi mistook the attack for a rebel trick and ordered Naples troops to converge on Saint Paul's Gate.
• Kamas identified Santa Sabina Basilica as the likely location of the prince, but enemy forces appeared near Via Ostiense and San Saba.
• Denipol ordered a countercharge, and more than 500 of his soldiers routed a Naples force of over 1,200 after one volley and a bayonet attack.

Denipol’s Guard helped rout the Naples forces in the south, while rumors of thousands of foreign volunteers spread through Rome and emboldened the insurgents. As the rebels advanced on Castel Sant’Angelo, Pius VI’s advisers urged him to flee to Naples and seek help from Austria and France.

• Denipol’s Guard shot and wounded the Naples cavalry commander, then continued toward Santa Sabina Basilica as Roman citizens cheered them as volunteers.
• Charles learned that the Naples forces had been routed at Saint Paul’s Gate and ordered cavalry to verify the volunteers’ identity.
• The Naples commander transferred troops from the Holy Trinity Church, allowing Major Damiano to seize the Flaminian Gate and advance toward the Milvian Bridge.
• Major Damiano’s insurgents and Roman citizens gathered outside Castel Sant’Angelo and fired cannons at it.
• Archbishop Consalvi and Archbishop Alchetti advised Pius VI to flee to Naples and call on Austria and France for military aid.

Pope Pius VI fled Castel Sant'Angelo for Naples as Roman insurgents closed in, while Charles quietly left Rome after helping secure the uprising's victory. General Federici's Naples Army became trapped in the city and withdrew after learning the Holy See had abandoned Rome.

• Pius VI followed Archbishop Maury's advice and escaped south from Castel Sant'Angelo with valuables and Swiss Guards aboard a steam tugboat.
• French officers Denipol and Kamas arrived with volunteers, and Charles departed Rome in a curtained carriage under the pretense of returning to Savoy.
• Josiah and Sorrentino praised Charles for his funding and command as they watched him leave, expecting him to return for the founding of the Roman Republic.
• General Federici learned that rebels had taken the Flaminian Gate and attacked Castel Sant'Angelo, then struggled to move his army north through barricaded streets.
• Romans celebrated after hearing that Pius VI had fled, and the next morning Federici ordered the Naples Army to withdraw from Rome as the Papal Guard prepared to surrender.

Major Luca’s fleet evacuated Pius VI from Rome and took him toward France, while Marines rescued Prince Charles and brought him safely home. Joseph learned that the Pope was now aboard a French ship bound for Marseille, leaving the Holy See’s fate in France’s hands.

• Major Luca recognized Pius VI aboard the tug Ostia and invited the Pope and Cardinals onto the frigate Tunis.
• Luca delayed the fleet’s departure while a sloop carried his report to Siena, and Denipol returned with Prince Charles.
• A French diplomat arrived with orders for Pius VI to announce that he was leaving Rome for refuge in France.
• Joseph told Louis XVI and Queen Mary that Marines had found Charles and that he was returning aboard the frigate Valletta.
• Joseph told Talleyrand that Charles was safe, canceled Baron Murisna’s planned mission to Rome, and reported that Pius VI had fled aboard a French fleet.

Joseph planned to move the Holy See to Avignon and use its influence to strengthen France, while instructing Talleyrand to handle the Italian states through cooperation and clear rules. Meanwhile, Charles was taken by a guarded carriage to the Royal Hunting Ground of Paris under the Regent’s orders.

• Joseph told Talleyrand that the Pope and the Holy See would move to Avignon, and outlined France’s plans to benefit from their influence.
• Joseph described a public announcement and tour to demonstrate that the Pope had sought refuge freely and to thank France for its help.
• Joseph ordered Talleyrand to attend the Mediterranean Security Organization meeting in Milan and address Captain Luca’s unauthorized actions in Rome.
• Joseph told Talleyrand to work with the North Italian States by setting boundaries and using a proactive strategy rather than coercion.
• Charles questioned Captain Normand after realizing the carriage was not headed to Versailles Palace, but Normand said the Regent had ordered the detour.
• The convoy carrying Charles stopped at the Royal Hunting Ground of Paris.

Joseph confronted his younger brother Charles over his reckless involvement in a Roman uprising and disciplined him with a riding crop. Charles admitted his mistake as Joseph stopped before delivering the final blow.

• Charles waited alone in the hunting grounds until Joseph arrived and rebuked him for neglecting Ravenna to join the turmoil in Rome.
• Charles defended the Roman cause, but Joseph argued that the uprising was an unplanned riot that could endanger France and its people.
• Joseph accused Charles of risking France’s reputation and acting recklessly for both the Roman cause and a girl he loved.
• Joseph struck Charles several times, saying each blow was for the French people, their parents, foreign ministry officials, soldiers, and himself.
• Charles begged Joseph to stop, and Joseph finally threw the riding crop into the weeds.

Joseph treated Charles’s wound and explained how the Security Organization would help Rome establish a parliament without provoking international isolation. He gave Charles two choices: return to his studies or serve anonymously as an assistant town clerk in Vivarais.

• Joseph disinfected and bandaged Charles’s wound while Charles apologized and asked whether Rome’s poor had any choice but to suffer.
• Joseph told Charles that people in Rome had the right to fight for freedom and equality, but that he did not need to lead them in person.
• Joseph explained his plan for the Mediterranean Security Organization to stage a stalemate, persuade the Holy See to leave Rome, and enable the rebels to establish a parliament.
• Joseph explained that the Northern Italian States would support the plan because it promised them greater religious autonomy, territory, and trade.
• Joseph offered Charles the choice of studying at Château de Meudon until he earned a doctorate or serving anonymously as an assistant town clerk in Vivarais under strict restrictions.

Joseph sent Charles to begin service as a minor official in Vivarais, while refusing to bring Josiah to France but promising she was unlikely to face danger. In Milan, Talleyrand defended France’s intervention in Rome before the Security Organization conference, and won support by arguing that the Naples Army posed a greater threat to Northern Italy than the rioters.

• Joseph assigned Charles to start at the bottom as a local official in Vivarais and imposed strict limits on what he could take.
• Charles asked Joseph to bring Josiah to France and protect her, but Joseph refused to admit her and said she would probably remain safe.
• At Count Archinto’s dinner in Milan, Talleyrand outlined the Holy See’s plan to share decisions on appointing and dismissing archbishops with local governments.
• Mocenigo challenged France’s use of Security Organization Allied Forces in Rome, and Talleyrand defended the intervention as an emergency action awaiting formal authorization.
• Talleyrand told representatives from Northern Italian states that the Naples Army had been a greater danger than the rioters, prompting them to look coldly at Mocenigo.

Talleyrand used a fabricated account of Prince Charles’s whereabouts to discredit Mocenigo’s claim that Charles had joined the Roman rioters, and the Venetian representative was forced to leave the banquet. As other countries offered troops to restore order in Rome, Talleyrand hinted that direct intervention might not be the best course.

• Mocenigo accused Prince Charles of joining and helping command the Roman rioters, while Talleyrand mocked the allegation as absurd.
• Talleyrand and the other delegates laughed off the accusation and claimed Charles had been attending the Mediterranean Silk Exhibition in Milan.
• Talleyrand called on Baron Diestiany, who testified that Charles had been visiting Princess Therese in Parma and hunting with Prince Ludovico.
• Talleyrand accused Mocenigo of insulting France and Parma, and the Milanese Foreign Minister ordered Mocenigo to leave the banquet.
• Representatives from Modena, Florence, and other states offered troops and supplies to suppress the Roman revolt.
• Talleyrand said that order should be restored in Rome but suggested that sending troops directly might not be the best choice.

Talleyrand persuaded European representatives that Rome could end the Pope’s secular rule and establish a new monarchy in Lazio-Umbria, avoiding war and opening the region to the Common Market. In Rome, his assistant François de Moulon urged the provisional leaders to elect a king as a diplomatic figurehead, but Sorrentino questioned whether such a king would truly have no power.

• Talleyrand argued that the Pope was a spiritual rather than secular sovereign, so Romans had not truly overthrown a monarch.
• Talleyrand persuaded the representatives that a new king in Lazio-Umbria could legitimize Rome’s changes, spare the city a war, and join the Common Market.
• The Florentine Minister of Foreign Affairs and other representatives warmed to Talleyrand’s proposal, while the Modenese Representative questioned what would happen if Romans insisted on an American-style government.
• At Santa Sabina Basilica, Liborio Angelucci, Visconti, and other committee members rejected the idea of replacing the Pope with another tyrant.
• François de Moulon warned that Rome had less than twenty days of ammunition and argued that a powerless king could serve as the new nation’s diplomatic facade.
• Sorrentino challenged Moulon’s claim that the proposed king would wield no real power.

Moulon persuaded Rome’s revolutionaries to establish a powerless monarchy, and the provisional government elected Duke Zagarolo as Lazio-Umbria’s Hereditary Ruler. The chapter ended with Franz II reacting furiously to German states’ demand that he abandon the name Holy Roman Empire.

• Moulon explained that a king could secure diplomatic recognition, reassure nobles and clergy, and help bring surrounding cities into the new state, while France would leave the choice to Parliament.
• At a meeting five days later, Sorrentino asked Josiah whom she favored as king, and she named Mr. Charlie before suggesting Duke Zagarolo.
• On October 2, the Lazio-Umbria Provisional Parliament formally elected Duke Zagarolo as Hereditary Ruler, and Northern Italian states accepted the result and sent diplomats.
• In Graz, Franz II learned that more than a dozen German states had urged him to abandon the name Holy Roman Empire and denounced them as traitors.

Franz II faced pressure to abandon the Holy Roman Empire’s name as Austria struggled to control the German states and settle its conflict with Hungary. Metternich’s proposal to preserve the Habsburg imperial title through a renamed state led Franz to authorize a new name, clearing the way for the Hungarian agreement.

• Franz II rejected the ministers’ suggestion to rename the Empire, but they argued that Austria should retreat, rebuild its strength, and wait for the great powers to go to war.
• Count Colloredo delivered Metternich’s letter, which warned that Grand Duke Ferdinand might be blocked from becoming Emperor and proposed making Franz Emperor of a state under his absolute rule.
• Franz II grieved over the Empire’s collapse and the loss of the Habsburgs’ standing.
• A week later, Metternich told the Hungarian representatives that Franz II had agreed to include the name United Austrian-Hungarian Empire in the agreement, with the formal decree to follow.

Russian officers celebrated Russia’s victory in Austria and discussed the empire’s growing influence, while reports of a Cossack rebellion and unpaid military expenses revealed trouble at home. The chapter left Russia’s Balkan ambitions shadowed by unrest and financial strain.

• Major Igor, Captain Nikola Petrovich, and Captain Dossayev toasted Alexander I, Marshal Kutuzov, and Russia’s victory in Austria.
• Igor and Dossayev discussed Russia’s international prestige, its expanding influence in the Balkans, and the French envoy’s effort to gain favor with the emperor.
• Igor said France had tacitly accepted Russian influence in the Balkans, while Joseph planned to encourage Russia to overextend itself there.
• Petrovich said he would transfer to Chernihiv after ending his relationship with Mrs Karashev and reported that local nobles had been killed and Cossack rebels had attacked the garrison.
• Dossayev said the army faced financial trouble and that his regiment commander was still owed expenses from the fighting in Minsk.

Captain Petrovich and the 11th Infantry Regiment reached Chernihiv, where they found villages abandoned and burned, exposing the devastation and flight caused by heavy taxes and unrest. Frensdorf explained that residents had fled east or joined the Cossacks in Moldavia, while the regiment commander blamed the destruction on rioters.

• In Saint Petersburg, Petrovich discussed his transfer with Major Igor, while Dossayev drunkenly blamed the Poles for Russia’s losses in Crimea and Vyazma.
• Two months later, Petrovich traveled toward Chernihiv as Major Baryshev boasted about the Hungarian campaign and Commander Pryazhin praised Russia’s imperial ambitions.
• The 11th Infantry Regiment found Lyubov Village deserted, with only burned church remains and ruined homes; Pryazhin ordered a report blaming the rioters.
• After three days without finding an inhabited settlement, the regiment arrived in Chernihiv and met Frensdorf, who said only fourteen villages and towns remained within fifty versts.
• Frensdorf told Pryazhin that tax increases and the seizure of livestock and seed grain had driven residents to flee east or join the Cossacks in Moldavia.

Petrovich watched General Prozorovsky leave Chernihiv, unaware that the Moldavian rebels had built a powerful alliance with Crimean Tatar nobles and Cossacks. Prozorovsky’s army was defeated and the rebels occupied Mykolaiv, while Pius VI arrived in Marseille in poor health.

• Petrovich heard officers speculate about Emperor Paul’s curse and questioned which emperor they should obey.
• General Prozorovsky took the regiment’s fodder without paying and marched toward Moldavia with more than seven thousand soldiers.
• Colonel Nestetov watched Tatar cavalry and rebel forces attack Prozorovsky’s army as Kishchenko questioned the alliance.
• The Society of Happiness and Russia’s Revenge Faction allied with anti-Russian Crimean nobles, recruited Cossacks and refugees, and obtained weapons through Ottoman merchants.
• Prozorovsky’s army was encircled and defeated, and the rebels occupied Mykolaiv in February 1803.
• Pius VI arrived in Marseille surrounded by archbishops and worried that his failing health would prevent him from returning to Rome.