Recaps

Wilhelm II appointed Falkenhayn Chief of the General Staff and approved a strategy to defend on the Western Front while continuing the offensive against Russia. The chapter ended with Oscar offering to fund a major Western Front rearmament and Wilhelm II accepting.

• Wilhelm II appointed Falkenhayn Chief of the General Staff, and Falkenhayn pledged to lead Germany to victory.
• Falkenhayn told Wilhelm II that the exhausted Western Front needed to rest and reorganize before launching another offensive next spring.
• Oscar explained that he and Falkenhayn planned to defend in the West while attacking Russia in the East for the next six months.
• Falkenhayn proposed reequipping Western Front units and creating an Armored Division for every army corps.
• Oscar offered to advance the money for the weapons, and Wilhelm II approved the plan.

Oscar used his wealth and Wilhelm II’s approval to strengthen the German war effort, while advising the Emperor to avoid confronting the United States until Germany defeated the Allied Powers. Oscar predicted that new capital ships would let Germany defeat the British Navy next year, leaving the story with Wilhelm II relying on that promised victory.

• Oscar’s companies suffered from wartime disruptions, while his shipbuilding, arms, and aircraft businesses expanded and he offered to fund military supplies for the German army.
• Wilhelm II asked Oscar when the Imperial Navy could defeat Britain, and Oscar explained that German commerce raiders and submarines were strangling British shipping.
• Oscar warned that American merchant ships were supplying Britain and said the United States would remain a threat while Europe lacked a clear hegemon.
• Wilhelm II and Falkenhayn questioned whether Germany could stop American interference, and Oscar urged them to focus on defeating the Allied Powers rather than provoking the United States.
• Oscar said Germany could blockade Britain after defeating its navy and predicted that eight new capital ships entering service next year would ensure German victory.

Oscar and Wilhelm II discussed Italy’s refusal to honor its alliance and the danger of it joining the Allied Powers. Oscar dismissed the Italian Army as weak, while Wilhelm II decided to take a firmer stance in negotiations with Italy.

• Oscar asked Wilhelm II how negotiations with Italy were progressing and when it would join the war.
• Wilhelm II said Italy had not declared its position and was demanding greater benefits.
• Falkenhayn warned that Italy’s entry into the Allied Powers could force Austria-Hungary to divert troops to defend its southern border.
• Oscar argued that Austria-Hungary could hold the mountainous frontier with few troops and German support, citing Italy’s poor military record.
• Oscar said Italy joining Germany’s side could help suppress the British Mediterranean Fleet and secure oil shipments from Cyrenaica.
• Wilhelm II ordered the Ministry of Foreign Affairs to contact Italy again with a more forceful attitude.

King Vittorio Emanuele III and his ministers debated which side Italy should join in the war, weighing battlefield developments against the benefits each alliance might offer. They decided to remain neutral a while longer and wait for a clearer opportunity.

• Vittorio Emanuele III asked Prime Minister Antonio Salandra and his ministers which side Italy should join.
• The Minister of War assessed Germany's gains on the Eastern Front, Austro-Hungarian setbacks, and Germany's fading advantage on the Western Front.
• The First Sea Lord noted Germany's current naval advantage, while the Minister of War argued that Britain's naval strength could still prevail.
• Antonio Salandra said the Allied Powers appeared to have somewhat better odds, but Italy should consider the benefits on offer and wait for the war to develop.
• Vittorio Emanuele III agreed to delay Italy's decision in pursuit of the greatest possible gains.

German and Austro-Hungarian foreign ministers visited Rome to force Italy to clarify whether it would honor its alliance treaty. The talks began with Germany and Austria-Hungary demanding an immediate answer, while Antonio Salandra and Paul Sedili had hoped to delay.

• Von Kiderlen-Wachth and Leopold von Berchtold traveled to Rome with authorization to take a hard line and press Italy to join their side.
• Antonio Salandra hosted a banquet for the visiting ministers, while Italian officials tried unsuccessfully to discern Germany's and Austria-Hungary's intentions.
• Antonio Salandra and Paul Sedili discussed delaying a decision, worried that refusing to commit could provoke Germany and Austria-Hungary.
• At the formal talks, von Kiderlen-Wachth and Leopold von Berchtold demanded that Antonio Salandra and Paul Sedili immediately say whether Italy would honor the alliance treaty.

Germany and Austria-Hungary gave Italy three days to decide whether it would honor the alliance treaty or be treated as an enemy. Antonio Salandra demanded Austrian territory in exchange for Italy joining the war, but Wachth rejected the demand and offered only a share of the spoils after victory.

• Antonio Salandra insisted that Italy had never considered abandoning the alliance, while Wachth challenged him to declare war on the Allied Powers if Italy intended to honor the treaty.
• Paolo Siedli claimed Italy needed more time to prepare, but Wachth and Leopold von Berchtold gave Italy three days to decide or face being treated as an enemy.
• Antonio Salandra protested Germany and Austria-Hungary's treatment of Italy, and Wachth said Italy had to show the conduct of an ally.
• Antonio Salandra demanded Trieste, all of Slovenia, and Croatia's Adriatic coast in exchange for Italy honoring the treaty.
• Leopold von Berchtold rejected the demand, and Wachth said Italy would receive only its share of benefits after victory.

After Germany and Austria-Hungary refused Italy’s territorial demands, Vittorio Emanuele III chose to pursue negotiations with the Allied Powers. Britain and France secretly invited Italy to join them in the war, promising generous benefits, but Italy’s leaders had not yet accepted.

• Vittorio Emanuele III and his ministers condemned Germany and Austria-Hungary’s demands and discussed joining the Allied Powers.
• The Minister of War argued that Italy could help defeat Austria-Hungary and encircle Germany, while Antonio Salandra advised seeking the greatest possible benefits from the Allies.
• Vittorio Emanuele III ordered Salandra to lead negotiations with the Allied Powers.
• British Foreign Minister Sir Edward Grey and French Foreign Minister Théophile Delcassé secretly arrived in Rome to recruit Italy.
• At a secret meeting, Grey invited Italy to join the Allies, and Delcassé promised generous postwar benefits; Salandra withheld his position.

Antonio Salandra negotiated with Britain and France over Italy joining the Allied Powers, securing promises of weapons, loans, and postwar territorial gains. King Vittorio Emanuele III approved the alliance and decided Italy would enter the war on the Allied side.

• Antonio Salandra told Sir Edward Grey and Théophile Delcassé that Italy was unprepared for war and sought support in return for joining the Allied Powers.
• Théophile Delcassé and Sir Edward Grey each offered Italy weapons for two hundred thousand troops and an interest-free loan of one hundred million Pounds Sterling.
• Antonio Salandra demanded Adriatic territories and other postwar gains, and Britain and France agreed to the demands, including Trieste, Fiume, Istria, Dalmatia, the Dodecanese Islands, and opportunities in Africa and Turkish territory.
• Antonio Salandra and Paul Sedili reported the agreement to King Vittorio Emanuele III.
• King Vittorio Emanuele III decided that Italy would join the Allied Powers in the war.

Italy rejected Germany and Austria-Hungary’s demands, signed a treaty with Britain and France, and agreed to join the war against its former allies. Wilhelm II’s officials discussed the threat, but Oscar dismissed Italy’s military strength, leaving the German leadership more confident.

• Antonio Salandra told von Kiderlen-Wächter and Baron Leopold von Berchtold that Italy would remain neutral, and they warned Italy it would face consequences.
• Von Kiderlen-Wächter and Baron Leopold von Berchtold sent word home as Italy signed a treaty with Britain and France, agreeing to abolish the Triple Alliance and declare war on Germany and Austria-Hungary within a month.
• Italy’s defection alarmed Germany and Austria-Hungary while Britain, France, and Russia welcomed the change in the balance of the war.
• Wilhelm II asked his officials how to respond, and Falkenhayn said Austria-Hungary needed to move troops to defend its southern regions.
• Oscar told Wilhelm II that Italy’s weak army would be easy to defeat, easing the German leadership’s concerns.

After Italy sided with the Allied Powers, Oscar and Wilhelm II planned to reinforce the Austro-Hungarian Empire while forming a new German army corps to defend the eastern territories. The chapter ended with Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy formally declaring war on one another.

• Falkenhayn warned that Austria-Hungary needed to move troops south to guard against an Italian attack, and Oscar proposed sending three Infantry Divisions as reinforcements.
• Wilhelm II approved the plan and agreed that the 8th Army Corps should join Austria-Hungary in an operation against Russia’s Southwestern Front Army.
• Falkenhayn proposed forming the 9th Army Corps from reserve troops and the newly formed 9th Armored Division to defend East Prussia and the Kingdom of Poland.
• Oscar recommended Hindenburg as Commander and Hofmann as chief of staff of the 9th Army Corps, and Wilhelm II approved their appointments.
• On October 1, 1914, Germany and Austria-Hungary declared war on Italy, and Italy declared war on both empires later that day.

Crown Prince Karl and Franz Joseph I reviewed the Austro-Hungarian Empire’s worsening position as Italy joined the war against it. Franz Joseph I trusted German support and Crown Prince Oskar’s army to help defeat Russia, while Karl privately dismissed Oskar as lucky.

• Franz Joseph I listened as officials reported the Empire’s mounting difficulties on the Serbian and Eastern Fronts and the threat of Italy’s entry into the war.
• Prime Minister Mario Weber told Franz Joseph I that the Austro-Hungarian Empire had declared war on Italy after Germany did the same.
• Duke Kaspar said the 1st Army Corps would move to the southern front and Germany would send three infantry divisions to help defend against Italy.
• Crown Prince Karl questioned how the Eastern Front would fare after the 1st Army Corps left, and Duke Kaspar described Germany’s plan to attack the Russian Southwestern Front Army with the 8th Army Corps.
• Franz Joseph I praised Crown Prince Oskar’s military achievements, while Karl privately regarded Oskar as lucky and believed he could have done better.

Crown Prince Karl went to the Austro-Hungarian Eastern Front to meet the German Crown Prince Oskar, whose battlefield achievements had made Karl jealous. After Karl arrived in Uzhhorod and complained that Oskar had not come to greet him, Oskar arrived the next day, tired from the journey.

• Karl asked Franz Joseph I for permission to visit the front, and the emperor agreed.
• Baron Marshal von Heitzenforf and Austrian commanders discussed their worsening position against Russia and Italy’s betrayal.
• Karl arrived at the Eastern Front headquarters with Archduke Friedrich and asked when Oskar would arrive.
• Karl complained that Oskar was putting on airs, and Archduke Friedrich urged the generals to wait.
• Oskar arrived in Uzhhorod the next day, while the 8th Army Corps had already gone ahead to the front.

Oscar arrived in Uzhhorod to help the Austro-Hungarian Empire, whose generals greeted him with lavish hospitality despite the Russian threat. Afterward, Manstein warned that the Austrians seemed unconcerned about the approaching Russian armies, leaving Oscar to suspect they expected Germany to shoulder the burden.

• Oscar traveled from Berlin to Uzhhorod with Brigadier General Manstein while Ludendorff went to the front.
• Crown Prince Karl, Archduke Friedrich, and Austrian generals welcomed Oscar in Uzhhorod.
• Oscar and Manstein attended a lavish luncheon and then were assigned a lounge to rest.
• Manstein told Oscar that the Austro-Hungarian generals did not seem worried about the five Russian armies gathering against them.
• Oscar concluded that the Austrians were relying on Germany, and Manstein feared the ally might prove unreliable.

Oscar planned for the German 8th Army Corps to attack the Russian Southwestern Front Army while seeking Austrian cooperation, but the joint conference exposed deep distrust between the German and Austrian commanders. He asked the Austro-Hungarian forces to follow his command, leaving the question of operational authority unresolved.

• Oscar told Manstein that Germany had to fight and win the coming battle, and said he would discuss command arrangements with the Austrians.
• At the joint operational conference, Crown Prince Karl resented the small German delegation and suspected Germany was exploiting Austro-Hungarian forces.
• Oscar outlined an October 7 attack by the German 8th Army Corps against the Russian 4th Army Corps, followed by a push against the flank and rear of the Russian main force.
• Crown Prince Karl doubted Oscar could defeat the Russian force, while Oscar cited Germany's victory over the Russian Northwestern Front Army.
• Oscar said the Germans had at least a fifty-percent chance of victory and asked the Austro-Hungarian military to follow his command.

Oscar and Manstein persuaded the Austrian commanders to let the German 8th Army Corps lead their joint campaign against Russia, despite Crown Prince Karl’s objections. Archduke Friedrich agreed to Austrian cooperation, leaving the allies preparing to launch the offensive.

• Crown Prince Karl angrily rejected the idea of the Austrian military taking orders from the Germans, questioning the plan and their authority despite having far more troops.
• Manstein argued that the German 8th Army Corps was confident it could defeat the Russians and would carry the main combat mission.
• Archduke Friedrich and the Austrian generals worried about the risks but acknowledged that their forces needed German leadership to win.
• Oscar explained that Russia had not completed mobilization and that delaying the campaign would give the Russians greater strength.
• Baron Marshal von Heitzenforf urged the Austrians to prioritize the larger goal, and Archduke Friedrich agreed that the Austrian military would fully cooperate with the Germans.

Grand Duke Nicholas warned General Ivanov that the German 8th Army Corps was moving south to attack the Southwestern Front, which was short on troops, equipment, and supplies. Ivanov prepared to face the German and Austro-Hungarian forces, while Nicholas ruled out attacking East Prussia because Russia had no spare troops and Germany had filled the gap.

• Grand Duke Nicholas asked General Ivanov whether the Southwestern Front was prepared for the approaching German 8th Army Corps.
• Ivanov asked when the 13th Army Corps would arrive, and Nicholas said it would take at least half a month and would be short of equipment.
• Grand Duke Nicholas told Ivanov that Russia could not afford another defeat and promised to provide as much support as possible.
• Ivanov urged Nicholas to guarantee supplies, warning that the German army's firepower and assault strength made logistics essential.
• Ivanov proposed attacking East Prussia while the German 8th Army Corps was away, but Nicholas said Russia lacked spare troops and Germany had reinforced the region.

General Ivanov and the Russian Southwestern Front Army’s commanders faced the advancing German 8th Army Corps and debated how to stop it. The staff presented a cautious defensive plan and a risky offensive plan, leaving Ivanov to choose how to meet the German threat.

• General Ivanov returned to Stryi and summoned his staff and army corps commanders to plan against the German 8th Army Corps.
• General Dimitriev and the other commanders reacted with alarm to the German advance, while General Ruszky asked whether it left East Prussia exposed.
• General Ivanov explained that German forces still guarded East Prussia and Poland and urged the commanders to focus on stopping the German offensive.
• General Brusilov and General Selyvanov warned that the German 8th Army Corps had defeated several Russian corps and that Russia lacked effective weapons against its tanks.
• The Southwestern Front Army’s staff proposed either concentrating two corps on defense or using one corps to hold the Germans while three attacked the Austro-Hungarian forces.

General Ivanov weighed two operational plans after German forces threatened the Russian Southwestern Front Army and chose a risky offensive aimed at defeating the Austro-Hungarian Empire before turning against the Germans. He planned to seek Grand Duke Nicholas’s approval and launch the attack immediately if it was granted.

• General Ruszky warned that the safer plan could leave the battlefield in a stalemate, while General Dimitriev said the riskier plan might not defeat the Austro-Hungarians quickly.
• General Brusilov and General Selyvanov urged Ivanov to choose the second plan and risk an offensive against the Austro-Hungarian forces.
• Ivanov asked whether Dimitriev’s troops could hold against the German 8th Army Corps for half a month, and Dimitriev said it would be extremely difficult.
• Ivanov ordered Dimitriev’s troops to hold the Germans until the 13th Army Corps arrived, while the other three corps tried to defeat the Austro-Hungarians.
• Ivanov said he would submit the plan to Grand Duke Nicholas for approval, and the Russian generals pledged to carry it out.

Grand Duke Nicholas approved General Ivanov’s risky plan to attack the Austro-Hungarian defenses in the Carpathian Mountains. Oscar prepared to trap the Russian forces by having the Austro-Hungarians hold the line while Germany’s 8th Army Corps attacked the Russian 4th Army Corps.

• Grand Duke Nicholas weighed the risks of General Ivanov’s plan and approved it as Russia’s best chance to reverse its fortunes.
• General Ivanov redeployed the Southwestern Front’s corps, with the 4th Army Corps fortifying the Chełm and Zamość line and three other corps advancing toward the Carpathian Mountains.
• Baron Marshal von Heitzenforf reported the Russian advance to Oscar, who judged that the Russians’ decision to attack would make them easier to defeat.
• Oscar arranged for the Austro-Hungarian forces to defend the Carpathian Mountains while the German 8th Army Corps attacked the Russian 4th Army Corps and aimed to cut off its retreat and supplies.
• On October 7, 1914, the German 8th Army Corps attacked the Russian 4th Army Corps as three Austro-Hungarian army corps reinforced the Carpathian Mountains defenses.

General Dimitriev prepared Chełm’s Russian defenses for an imminent German assault, while Lieutenant General Seeckt and Colonel Rommel planned how to overcome the anti-tank trenches. German artillery began bombarding the Russian positions, opening the attack on Chełm.

• General Dimitriev ordered the Russian units to prepare for battle and confirmed that the anti-tank trenches were complete.
• Lieutenant General Seeckt inspected the Russian defenses, and Colonel Rommel said the trenches posed only a minor obstacle to German tanks.
• Colonel Rommel and the commanders of the infantry divisions confirmed they were ready for the assault on Chełm.
• Lieutenant General Seeckt ordered the bombardment to begin before the armored forces and 50th Infantry Division attacked.
• German artillery opened fire on the Russian positions.

German artillery devastated the Russian 4th Army Corps’ defenses, burying many soldiers in collapsing shelters. General Dimitriev ordered Russian guns to respond, and Lieutenant General Seeckt then ordered German artillery to suppress them and called in the Air Corps.

• German shells destroyed Russian trenches and collapsed shellproof shelters, burying most of the soldiers inside one shelter.
• A Russian lieutenant general urged General Dimitriev to silence the German bombardment with counterfire.
• General Dimitriev ordered the Russian artillery to open fire despite its inferior range and strength.
• Russian guns bombarded German field-gun positions but inflicted only limited losses.
• Lieutenant General Seeckt ordered German guns to keep attacking Russian artillery and sent a Telegram authorizing the Air Corps to attack.

German artillery and the 8th Air Corps attacked Russian positions as Lieutenant General Seeckt prepared the ground for a German assault. The Russian 4th Army Corps’ artillery was devastated by the air raid, leaving General Dimitriev’s forces unable to stop the coming advance.

• German heavy artillery bombarded Russian gun positions, inflicting severe losses while the Russian gunners continued firing.
• German aircraft of the 8th Air Corps arrived, and Lieutenant General Seeckt ordered them to attack the Russian artillery.
• General Dimitriev and the other Russian commanders withdrew when they spotted the aircraft, then realized the planes were targeting their artillery.
• The German bombers destroyed Russian artillery positions, and General Dimitriev ordered the artillerymen to disperse too late to avoid the attack.

German air strikes and artillery fire devastated the Russian artillery and defensive positions at Chełm, while General Dimitriev tried to maintain his troops’ confidence. Lieutenant General Seeckt then ordered a German assault, and tanks and infantry charged toward the shattered Russian lines.

• The German 8th Air Corps destroyed Russian guns and killed artillerymen, reducing the 4th Army Corps artillery at Chełm to less than one-tenth of its former strength.
• General Dimitriev acknowledged the heavy losses but urged his commanders to hold Chełm and announced that the 22nd Army Corps would reinforce them.
• Lieutenant General Seeckt extended the German artillery bombardment by half an hour before ordering the Armored Forces and infantry to attack.
• German shelling devastated the Russian defensive works, leaving the positions littered with craters and casualties.
• Colonel Rommel led more than a hundred tanks and over ten thousand infantrymen in a charge toward the Russian lines.

Colonel Rommel’s German tank force attacked the Russian 4th Front Army, crushing its firing positions and filling in its anti-tank trenches. German tanks crossed the trenches and charged toward the Russian defensive line, leaving the defenders unsure how to stop them.

• The Russian 4th Front Army emerged from its battered bunkers and prepared to resist the German attack.
• The Russian commander ordered his troops to fire on the approaching German tanks, but their weapons barely damaged the armor.
• Colonel Rommel ordered the German tanks to destroy Russian machine-gun and mortar positions, while the tanks continued advancing under fire.
• The German tanks reached the anti-tank trenches and stopped while trucks and bulldozers filled two passages across them.
• The Russian troops failed to stop the German engineers, and Rommel’s tanks crossed the trenches and charged toward the defensive line.

Colonel Rommel’s 8th Armored Division broke through the Russian defenses outside Chełm after German trucks filled gaps in the anti-tank trenches. General Dimitriev evacuated the city, leaving Generals Fyodor and Golovin to defend it as German tanks overran the forward positions.

• Colonel Rommel ordered the 8th Armored Division to attack, and its tanks suppressed the Russian positions with cannon and machine-gun fire.
• A lieutenant general told General Dimitriev that German trucks had filled two passages across the anti-tank trenches, allowing the tanks to advance.
• General Dimitriev ordered General Fyodor and General Golovin to continue the defense, saying the 22nd Army Corps would arrive by the day after tomorrow.
• General Dimitriev evacuated Chełm and withdrew to the rear.
• German tanks broke through the Russian forward positions, and their machine guns cut down fleeing soldiers as the tanks crushed the defenses.