Recaps

After the Southwestern Front lost nearly a million troops, Grand Duke Nicholas reported the disaster truthfully to Nicholas II, who confronted his generals and officials about Russia’s losses. The chapter left Nicholas II considering a halt to offensives until newly mobilized forces were ready.

• Grand Duke Nicholas read General Ivanov’s report that the Southwestern Front had been reduced from 1.2 million troops to 250,000.
• Grand Duke Nicholas told his generals that Russia had little hope of victory and ordered them to report the losses honestly to Nicholas II.
• Nicholas II read the telegrams and demanded to know how Russia could continue fighting after losing nearly two million troops.
• Minister of War Sukhomlinov advised Nicholas II to avoid further offensives until newly mobilized forces were ready.

Nicholas II rejected making peace with Germany and approved Grand Duke Nicholas's plan to trade territory for time, rebuilding Russia's western fronts while seeking foreign arms. The chapter ended with orders to reconstitute the Northwestern and Southwestern Fronts, each with 1.5 million men.

• Sukhomlinov estimated that new Russian units needed a year to become combat-ready, then said they could do it in six months if Britain and France supplied weapons and equipment.
• Nicholas II ordered Izvolsky to press Britain and France for munitions, leaving them to solve the problem of delivering supplies to Russian ports.
• Prime Minister Vyacheslav Plehve urged Nicholas II to make peace with Germany and warned that unrest threatened the Empire, but Nicholas rejected peace and ordered troops to suppress opposition.
• Sukhomlinov relayed Grand Duke Nicholas's proposal to contract Russia's defensive lines, surrender western territory temporarily, and use the time to reorganize and arm the army.
• Nicholas II approved trading space for time and ordered the Northwestern Front Army and Southwestern Front rebuilt to 1.5 million men each.

After the Russian Southwestern Front Army was nearly destroyed, Oscar refused Austria-Hungary’s request to continue the eastern offensive and prepared to move German forces back to the Western Front. Germany’s immediate eastern crisis eased, while Austria-Hungary rebuilt its forces and pursued its own ambitions.

• Oscar told Baron Marshal von Heitzenforf that he would take the 8th Army Corps back to Germany, but Heitzenforf urged him to attack Russia while it was weakened.
• Oscar rejected the proposed offensive, citing the approaching Russian winter, Russia’s remaining manpower and strategic depth, and the stalemate on the Western Front.
• Oscar told Heitzenforf that the 8th Army Corps would return to Germany to help seek a breakthrough against the Anglo-French Allied Forces.
• In late October, Oscar left Uzhhorod as the 8th Army Corps headed north to East Prussia, while the newly formed 9th Army Corps moved into the Kingdom of Poland.
• The Austro-Hungarian Empire replenished its Eastern Front forces and prepared to deploy another army group, bringing its planned force there to four army groups and 1.2 million men.

After the Austro-Hungarian Empire’s victory over Russia, Crown Prince Karl pushed to exploit the weakened Russian forces and seize territory without Germany. Franz Joseph I delayed a decision, while Karl remained convinced his plan would strengthen the empire and win the emperor’s approval.

• Baron Marshal von Heitzenforf reported that Austro-Hungarian and German forces had destroyed most of the Russian Southwestern Front Army, adding to Germany’s earlier victory over the Northwestern Front Army.
• Franz Joseph I and Archduke Friedrich praised Germany’s military strength, while Crown Prince Karl resented the empire’s subordinate position and wanted to stand equal to Oskar.
• Crown Prince Karl urged the Austro-Hungarian Empire to continue its Eastern Front offensive and seize Russian territory while Russia was weakened.
• Baron Marshal von Heitzenforf explained that Oskar’s 8th Army Corps would return to Germany for the Western Front, and Karl argued that acting without Germany would let Austria keep all the gains.
• Franz Joseph I postponed his decision, while Archduke Friedrich and Baron Marshal von Heitzenforf recognized that the other leaders were eager to continue the offensive.
• Crown Prince Karl privately convinced himself that his plan would strengthen the Austro-Hungarian Empire and earn Franz Joseph I’s support.

Crown Prince Karl persuaded Archduke Friedrich and Baron Marshal von Heitzenforf to support another Austro-Hungarian attack on Russia despite their concerns about German support and Russian strength. Emperor Joseph Franz I approved the offensive, but the Austrian military soon suffered another defeat without German assistance.

• Crown Prince Karl urged Archduke Friedrich and Baron Marshal von Heitzenforf to seize the chance to gain territory by attacking Russia.
• Archduke Friedrich and Baron Marshal von Heitzenforf warned that Russia remained powerful and that the previous victory depended heavily on German support.
• Baron Marshal von Heitzenforf proposed a cautious attack, and he told Archduke Friedrich that Your Highness Oskar had not opposed an offensive.
• Archduke Friedrich agreed to persuade Emperor Joseph Franz I, who approved the plan two days later.
• The Austrian military attacked Russia without German assistance and soon suffered another defeat.

Sir Edward Grey saw London’s shortages and tried to reassure his secretary that Britain would win, though he privately feared the worsening war. At a meeting with Asquith, Richard Haldane, and Churchill, he confronted the danger posed by Russia’s crushing losses and the resulting pressure on the Western Front.

• Sir Edward Grey drove through a depleted London and told his secretary that Britain would defeat Germany, though his confidence was only an act.
• Sir Edward Grey went to the Prime Minister’s residence to discuss Russia’s defeat with Asquith, Richard Haldane, and Churchill.
• Asquith said Russia had lost two million troops, leaving Germany free to shift its main forces to the Western Front.
• Richard Haldane urged Britain to press Russia to keep attacking on the Eastern Front, arguing that it still had vast reserves of manpower.

British leaders agreed to help Russia arm and train its forces so Russia would continue fighting Germany on the Eastern Front. Britain and France arranged to supply munitions and lend Russia twenty million Pounds Sterling, leaving Russia expected to launch an offensive the following spring.

• Sir Edward Grey explained that Russia lacked the weapons to equip its mobilized troops and had requested foreign munitions.
• Richard Haldane warned that Britain also lacked weapons, but Prime Minister Asquith and Churchill argued that Russia had to keep fighting to tie down German forces.
• Churchill and Sir Edward Grey proposed ordering munitions from the Americans and having them transport the supplies to Russia.
• Asquith agreed to make the aid conditional on Russia training its troops quickly and launching an offensive against Germany the following spring.
• Churchill secured agreement that France would provide half the munitions, and proposed a loan to strengthen Russia's resolve.
• Britain and France decided to supply enough munitions to help Russia arm two million troops and lend Russia twenty million Pounds Sterling.

As Russia faced worsening hardship and military defeat, Ulyanov and the Bolshevik leaders planned an uprising in St. Petersburg with financial and material support from Germany. Ulyanov decided they would act while the city’s defenses were weakened.

• Ulyanov argued that the Tsar’s unpopularity and Russia’s catastrophic losses made an uprising likely to succeed.
• Joseph said the Russian Guard 1st Army Corps had been sent to the front, leaving St. Petersburg poorly defended, while Kamenev warned that rebellion could fail.
• Joseph revealed that Germany had provided two million marks and weapons for the uprising, prompting Kamenev to question accepting aid from an enemy.
• Ulyanov said the Bolsheviks would use Germany’s support and then rely on it no longer.
• Ulyanov ordered the Bolsheviks to proceed with the revolution, and Joseph and the other leaders pledged their support.

In November 1914, Nicholas II ordered the arrest and execution of Bolshevik leaders and strike organizers, but the repression fueled workers’ anger. After troops fired on a Nevsky Prospect demonstration, Ulyanov and Joseph launched an armed uprising in St. Petersburg, where insurgents seized key positions by nightfall.

• Bolshevik-led strikes spread across St. Petersburg, prompting Pyotr Arkadyevich Stolypin to warn Nicholas II that the capital was in turmoil.
• Nicholas II ordered the police to arrest the rebels and authorized military suppression; on November 5, police arrested over a hundred Bolsheviks and organizers, and dozens were hanged without trial.
• Ulyanov and other Bolshevik leaders called on workers and civilians to take up arms after the executions, and tens of thousands gathered on Nevsky Prospect to demand the prisoners’ release.
• Troops blocked the march, gunfire broke out, and the Russian army’s machine guns killed many workers before the crowd retreated.
• Ulyanov and Joseph decided to use the army’s attack to overthrow Nicholas II, and St. Petersburg workers began an armed uprising that afternoon, capturing police stations and armories and attacking government institutions.

Bolshevik-led insurgents defeated Tsarist forces and seized St. Petersburg. Nicholas II and his family were captured and secretly detained as foreign powers watched the upheaval.

• Nicholas II rejected Plehve’s proposal to negotiate and ordered Sukhomlinov to send troops into St. Petersburg to crush the uprising.
• Bolshevik-infiltrated recruits joined the insurgent workers, and after a night of fighting the Tsar’s loyal forces lost control of the city.
• Ulyanov ordered Joseph to attack the Winter Palace and capture Nicholas II’s family.
• The insurgents took the Winter Palace on November 8 and found Nicholas II’s family hiding in its basement.
• Joseph’s trusted subordinates secretly transported the family outside St. Petersburg for detention while the world reacted to the successful uprising.

Russia’s Bolshevik takeover alarmed the Allied Powers and gave Germany and Austria-Hungary an opportunity to redirect their forces. Germany halted Austria-Hungary’s plans to attack and prepared to negotiate with the Bolsheviks, while Britain’s cabinet gathered to consider the consequences.

• The Bolsheviks took power in Russia, leaving the Allied Powers uncertain whether Russia would continue fighting on the Eastern Front.
• Germany backed the Bolsheviks and Oscar prepared to use their victory to negotiate an end to fighting on the Eastern Front.
• Austria-Hungary prepared another offensive, but Germany ordered it to halt operations against the Russian Bolsheviks.
• Crown Prince Karl opposed obeying Germany, but Archduke Friedrich, Baron Marshal von Heitzenforf, and others rejected his stance, and Franz Joseph I ordered the army to remain defensive.
• Prime Minister Asquith convened the British Cabinet to discuss Russia’s upheaval and the threat of Germany attacking the Western Front with greater force.

Britain's leaders discussed how to respond to the Russian Revolution after Nicholas II's rule fell, and learned that the Bolsheviks were closely supported by Germany. Britain then sought help from other powers to arm Tsarist loyalists and intervene in Russia, leaving Japan, the United States, Britain, and France preparing to send troops.

• Churchill urged Britain to approach the Bolsheviks, but Sir Edward Grey reported that Germany had supported them and that Nicholas II was likely in rebel hands.
• Churchill argued that Britain must prevent the Bolsheviks from gaining strength, and Asquith approved sending American arms to Tsarist loyalists.
• Churchill proposed that Japan and the United States intervene in Russia, with Britain and France also contributing troops, and Asquith accepted the plan.
• Britain contacted France, the United States, and Japan, and Japan decided to send 100,000 troops to Vladivostok.
• The United States prepared to land troops at Murmansk, while Britain and France planned to send smaller forces.

As Bolshevik forces expanded across Russia, Ulyanov worried about foreign intervention and ordered harsher action against their opponents. He approved Joseph’s proposal to execute Nicholas II, and the former Tsar and his family were killed.

• Trotsky reported that Bolshevik forces had taken Moscow, and Ulyanov urged him to expand faster and purge anyone who resisted.
• Joseph told Ulyanov that the Allied Powers might intervene unless the Bolsheviks continued fighting Germany, while other foreign powers could aid their domestic opponents.
• Joseph proposed executing Nicholas II to deprive the rebels of a figurehead, and Ulyanov agreed and ordered him to keep it secret.
• Yurovsky arrived at the farm outside St. Petersburg and read the Bolshevik Supreme Council’s execution order to Nicholas II and his family.
• Yurovsky ordered the execution, and Nicholas II, Empress Alexandra, and their five children were shot.

Wilhelm II and his advisers discussed Russia’s revolution and the German Empire’s prospects in the war. Oscar warned that the Bolshevik Party could become a future threat, while the Empire prepared to concentrate its forces against the Allies and challenge Britain at sea.

• Wilhelm II praised Oscar for helping the Bolshevik Party succeed in overthrowing Russia’s government.
• Oscar urged the Empire to suppress Bolshevik activity and prepare for a future conflict with the party, and Wilhelm II assigned him responsibility for the matter.
• Wilhelm II and Oscar discussed transferring most German forces from the Eastern Front to the Western Front and forming armored divisions.
• Tirpitz said the High Seas Fleet planned to fight a decisive battle against Britain in the first half of the following year, when new warships would enter service.
• Wilhelm II declared that the Empire would win on the Western Front and defeat the British Royal Navy.

Oscar persuaded Wilhelm II to pursue peace talks with the Bolshevik Party and proposed extracting extensive territorial concessions and war reparations from Russia. Wilhelm approved the plan, and von Kiderlen-Wachth was appointed to negotiate for Germany.

• Oscar argued that the Bolshevik Party would accept peace terms to focus on domestic enemies, and Wilhelm II agreed to pursue negotiations.
• Oscar proposed demanding Poland and the Baltic States, independence for Finland and Ukraine, possible occupation of Belarus, and at least six billion Marks in reparations.
• Bernhard von Bülow and von Kiderlen-Wachth questioned whether the Bolsheviks would accept such harsh demands, but Oscar insisted they would yield under threat of force.
• Bernhard von Bülow authorized von Kiderlen-Wachth to negotiate with Russia on Germany's behalf.

Ulyanov and Joseph agreed to negotiate peace with Germany while trying to limit Russia’s losses. Joseph maneuvered to make Trotsky lead the talks, which began in Brest with polite but insincere exchanges.

• Joseph told Ulyanov that Germany had offered peace talks and would likely demand major concessions.
• Ulyanov decided to negotiate, instructing the Bolsheviks to accept only terms that were not too harsh.
• Joseph declined to represent the Bolsheviks and proposed Trotsky, hoping the negotiations would damage his rival’s standing.
• The Bolshevik Supreme Council appointed Trotsky as plenipotentiary representative, and Germany appointed von Kiderlen-Wächter.
• On December 12, Trotsky and von Kiderlen-Wächter opened peace talks in Brest with courteous statements about ending the war and maintaining peaceful relations.

German Foreign Minister von Kiderlen-Wachth presented severe peace terms to Trotsky and the Bolshevik delegation, including territorial cessions, disarmament, and reparations. Trotsky rejected the terms but left with three days to consult his authorities before Germany ended negotiations and threatened to use force.

• Von Kiderlen-Wachth demanded a ceasefire, Russian demobilization, territorial concessions, transfer of capital warships, recognition of Ukraine and Finland, and twelve billion Mark in reparations.
• Trotsky objected to the harsh terms and offered to cede Poland and pay two billion Mark instead.
• Von Kiderlen-Wachth mocked Trotsky’s appeal to the Russian people and warned that Germany would seize what it wanted by force if talks failed.
• Trotsky said he would report the demands to his authorities but maintained that the Bolsheviks could not accept them.
• Von Kiderlen-Wachth gave the Bolsheviks three days to provide a satisfactory answer before Germany terminated negotiations.

The Bolshevik Supreme Council debated Germany’s harsh peace terms after receiving Trotsky’s telegram from Brest. Joseph urged the leaders to accept a treaty and withdraw from the war, warning that rejecting Germany could destroy the revolution, while Ulyanov weighed the consequences.

• The Supreme Council read Trotsky’s telegram and reacted with anger and alarm to Germany’s demands.
• Ulyanov questioned whether they should accept the terms, while Kamenev and others opposed them as a betrayal of Russia.
• Joseph asked what Germany would do if they refused and warned that the Bolsheviks could not withstand a German attack.
• Kamenev argued Germany was too occupied with Britain and France to attack Russia.
• Joseph warned that Germany and the Austro-Hungarian Empire could threaten the Bolsheviks and urged a treaty and withdrawal from the war.

After the Russian Bolshevik Party failed to answer Germany’s demands, Oscar ordered German forces to threaten an invasion. Faced with the two army corps at the border, Ulyanov decided to accept Germany’s terms, though Kamenev and Trotsky opposed him.

• The Russian Bolshevik Party’s leaders argued for days without reaching a decision, and von Kidren-Wachth left Brest with the German delegation.
• In Berlin, Oscar rejected calls to lower Germany’s demands and ordered the 8th Army Corps and 9th Army Corps to stage an advance toward Russia.
• The two German army corps moved to the border and deployed in attack formations, alarming the Bolshevik leaders.
• Ulyanov told Joseph that the Bolsheviks had to agree to Germany’s demands rather than risk war.
• Joseph warned Ulyanov that Kamenev and Trotsky opposed the terms, and Ulyanov ordered him to find a way to overcome their resistance.

Ulyanov tried to persuade the Bolshevik Supreme Council to accept Germany’s demands rather than risk a military attack, but two votes failed to give him a majority. Afterward, he privately pressed Trotsky to reconsider his opposition, while secretly vowing to punish those who defied him once the crisis passed.

• Joseph argued that the Germans’ advancing forces could defeat the Bolsheviks and urged the Supreme Council to accept their demands, while Trotsky insisted the threat might be a bluff.
• Ulyanov stopped Kamenev’s personal attack on Joseph and argued that compromise with Germany was necessary while the Bolsheviks faced internal and external enemies.
• The Supreme Council voted five to eight against Ulyanov’s position, and his appeal to compromise the following day lost by six to seven.
• Ulyanov grew furious and resolved to deal with those who opposed him after the crisis, then summoned Trotsky to his office.
• Trotsky confirmed that he opposed compromise, and Ulyanov pressed him to consider the risk of losing the revolution if Germany attacked.

Ulyanov persuaded Trotsky to resume peace talks with Germany, but the negotiations stalled until Oscar ordered German forces to advance into Russian territory. Facing the threat, the Russian Bolshevik Party approved Germany’s terms, and Trotsky signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk.

• Trotsky agreed with Ulyanov that the Bolsheviks should resume negotiations with Germany rather than risk their revolution.
• The Russian Bolshevik Party offered to restart peace talks, and Wachth prepared to press Germany’s advantage.
• At negotiations in Brest on January 8, 1915, Wachth demanded half of Belarus and ten billion Marks in reparations, but Trotsky rejected the terms and talks deadlocked.
• Oscar ordered the 8th Army Corps and the 9th Army Corps to cross the line of control and advance into Russian territory.
• Ulyanov convened an emergency meeting, and eight of thirteen voters supported accepting Germany’s terms.
• On January 18, 1915, Trotsky signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, ceding the Baltic States, Poland, and half of Belarus, recognizing Ukrainian and Finnish independence, and agreeing to ten billion Marks in reparations.

After Germany secured a harsh peace with Russia, Wilhelm II praised Oscar for his role and turned Germany’s attention to defeating France and ending the war in the west. Oscar warned that Britain might have to be invaded if it refused to surrender, and Wilhelm II agreed that Germany could defeat it after winning command of the sea.

• Wilhelm II praised Oscar for the victory over Russia and credited his leadership with strengthening the German Empire.
• Oscar modestly attributed the achievements to Wilhelm II’s wise leadership and preparation.
• Wilhelm II declared that Germany’s priority was victory on the Western Front and, if possible, ending the war that year.
• Oscar said Germany should crush France and might need to land in Britain if the British refused to surrender.
• Wilhelm II accepted that Germany could defeat Britain if the Imperial Navy beat the Royal Navy.

Wilhelm II considered conquering Britain, then met with Prime Minister Bernhard von Bülow and Foreign Minister von Kiderlen-Wächter to address Austro-Hungarian anger over Germany’s armistice with Russia. Oscar proposed compensating Austria-Hungary with gains in the Balkans and elsewhere while keeping Russia’s ceded territories for Germany.

• Wilhelm II discussed the possibility of defeating Britain and landing German forces there.
• Foreign Minister von Kiderlen-Wächter reported that Austria-Hungary had protested Germany’s armistice with Russia for disregarding its interests.
• Prime Minister Bernhard von Bülow suggested transferring some of Germany’s gains to Austria-Hungary to preserve the alliance.
• Oscar proposed offering Austria-Hungary expansion in the Balkans instead of any Russian territories.
• Foreign Minister von Kiderlen-Wächter supported Oscar’s proposal, while Bernhard von Bülow worried Austria-Hungary would resent Germany’s larger gains.
• Oscar suggested offering further concessions, such as Italian territory or war reparations, but said Germany need not accommodate Austria-Hungary if it remained dissatisfied.

Germany offered the Austro-Hungarian Empire Balkan and Italian expansion and two billion marks in compensation for excluding it from the peace settlement with Russia. Franz Joseph I accepted the offer and reaffirmed the alliance with Germany.

• Wilhelm II approved Oscar's proposal to deny Austria-Hungary Russian territory but offer it two billion marks and support for expansion in the Balkans and Italy.
• Wilhelm II sent Foreign Minister Wachth to Vienna to explain Germany's position to Austria-Hungary.
• Crown Prince Karl spread rumors that Germany had made a separate peace with Russia, but Franz Joseph I confronted him and the rumors disappeared.
• Wachth apologized to Franz Joseph I for Germany's secret negotiations with Russia and explained that Germany would keep the territories it had gained.
• Franz Joseph I accepted Germany's compensation and declared that Austria-Hungary would remain Germany's ally.

Franz Joseph I and Mario Weber accepted that Austria-Hungary lacked the strength to challenge Germany, despite their anger over Germany’s separate peace with Russia and its division of spoils. Wachth’s deliberate snub of Crown Prince Karl weakened Karl’s standing at court, leaving him furious and resentful of Germany’s gains.

• Franz Joseph I told Mario Weber that Austria-Hungary could neither break with Germany nor safely switch sides, and Weber agreed that staying with the Allied Powers offered the best chance of gaining territory and reparations.
• Wachth met Archduke Friedrich and Baron Marshal von Heitzenforf, who understood Germany’s approach to Russia, then returned to Germany without visiting Crown Prince Karl.
• Crown Prince Karl raged that Wachth had treated him with contempt, while the account revealed that Wachth had snubbed him deliberately because of his actions against Germany and Oscar.
• Austro-Hungarian nobles reconsidered drawing close to Karl after recognizing that Germany disapproved of him and might constrain him after the war.
• Karl grew even more resentful when Germany claimed vast Russian territories that he believed should have been shared with Austria-Hungary.