Recaps

Spain’s Foreign Minister Preto accepted British bribes to provoke a tougher Spanish response to Germany after the Gibraltar crisis. He agreed to carry out the plan despite recognizing that it could endanger Spain, and the chapter left him torn between guilt and greed.

• Preto met the British Ambassador in a secret room after learning that Spain had reclaimed Gibraltar and nearly faced war with Germany.
• The British Ambassador gave Preto one million Mark for his earlier help and asked him to make Spain take a tougher stance toward Germany.
• Preto initially refused, warning that provoking Germany could bring war and disaster to Spain.
• The British Ambassador offered ten million Mark, and Preto agreed to the plan after receiving a two-million-Mark deposit.
• After the British Ambassador left, Preto struggled with guilt over betraying Spain and reluctance to give up the money.

Spanish Foreign Minister Preto faced a German ultimatum over Spain's recovery of Gibraltar and reported the threat to Alfonso XIII. The king wanted to withdraw from Gibraltar, while Prime Minister Count Romanones and Preto argued that Germany might only be bluffing.

• The German Ambassador accused Spain of disrupting Mediterranean stability and challenged its claim to Gibraltar.
• The German Ambassador threatened war if Spain did not provide a satisfactory answer by the next day, and Preto protested before going to the palace.
• Preto told Alfonso XIII that Germany had formally threatened Spain over Gibraltar.
• Alfonso XIII proposed withdrawing from Gibraltar, but Count Romanones warned that Germany might be trying to frighten Spain.
• Preto argued that Germany might be bluffing and pointed to its fleet and troop transports as evidence that its plans for Gibraltar had been disrupted by Britain's handover.

The German Ambassador demanded that Spain lease Gibraltar to Germany for ninety-nine years for one Mark, threatening that Germany would protect its interests by any means. After the Ambassador left, Alfonso XIII panicked over the prospect of war but could not bring himself to accept the humiliating terms.

• Preto persuaded Alfonso XIII that Germany was bluffing and would retreat if Spain refused to compromise, while Count Romanones advised summoning the German Ambassador.
• Alfonso XIII told the German Ambassador that Gibraltar belonged to Spain and that Germany should not interfere in Spanish affairs.
• The German Ambassador demanded a ninety-nine-year lease of Gibraltar for one Mark total, claiming Germany would recognize Spanish sovereignty in return.
• Preto and Count Romanones protested the terms, but the Ambassador warned Spain to accept or face Germany's wrath and requested a reply by the next morning.
• After the Ambassador left, Alfonso XIII feared Germany would declare war but remained unwilling to lease Gibraltar on those terms.

Alfonso XIII hesitated over whether Spain should accept Germany’s demand to lease Gibraltar, while Preto urged him to gather more intelligence. British and American ambassadors offered support against Germany, but Preto remained uncertain whether their backing could prevent an invasion.

• Alfonso XIII considered accepting Germany’s demand, but Preto warned him that surrender could damage Spain’s reputation and provoke unrest.
• Alfonso XIII ordered Count Romanones and Preto to gather intelligence before deciding, and Count Romanones contacted the British Ambassador.
• Count Romanones and Preto met the British and American Ambassadors, and Preto told them Germany had threatened war over Spain’s refusal to lease Gibraltar for one Mark.
• The British and American Ambassadors condemned Germany’s conduct and said they would rally international public opinion in Spain’s support.
• Preto doubted that public condemnation would be enough to stop Germany from invading Spain.

British and American ambassadors persuaded Spanish Foreign Minister Preto and Alfonso XIII to resist Germany over Gibraltar, promising aid and mediation if war broke out. The next day, Alfonso XIII rejected Germany’s demands.

• Preto refused the British Ambassador’s proposal for Spain to join the Allied Powers and said Spain wanted to remain neutral.
• The British and American Ambassadors warned Preto that yielding to Germany would invite further pressure and urged Spain to fight over Gibraltar.
• Preto agreed to arrange a secret meeting between the ambassadors and Alfonso XIII, while the American Ambassador promised him personal benefits.
• The British and American Ambassadors promised Alfonso XIII assistance, a war loan, and mediation if fighting spread beyond Gibraltar.
• Alfonso XIII accepted the plan to resist Germany, and the next day he sternly rejected Germany’s demands.

Alfonso XIII rejected Germany’s demand to lease Gibraltar and ordered Spanish troops to defend it, believing Britain and the United States would prevent the conflict from spreading. Oscar ordered the German army and navy to prepare to seize Gibraltar and humble Spain while keeping the war limited.

• Alfonso XIII refused the German Ambassador’s demand to lease Gibraltar, and the Ambassador warned Spain to expect Germany’s wrath.
• Alfonso XIII ordered elite Spanish troops into Gibraltar and relied on assurances that the United States would mediate if the conflict expanded.
• In Berlin, Bülow and Oscar reacted angrily to Spain’s refusal, while the Director of the Intelligence Bureau reported that the British and American ambassadors had visited the Spanish royal palace.
• Wachth concluded that Britain and the United States were encouraging Spain, and Falkenhayn urged Germany to act militarily.
• Oscar ordered the army and navy to prepare to take Gibraltar and humiliate Spain without expanding the war unless necessary.
• Falkenhayn proposed using a Marine Division and the Mediterranean Fleet, with more troops or a show of force if Spain resisted, and Oscar approved.

On January 31, 1916, Germany attacked Gibraltar after Spain refused to withdraw, and seven German Capital Ships bombarded the fortress. Spanish Major General Donald ordered the fortress guns to counterattack, but their inaccurate fire left the German ships unthreatened.

• The German Navy assembled its Mediterranean Fleet and the 2nd Marine Division at Gibraltar to seize the territory and block a Spanish counterattack.
• The German Foreign Ministry demanded that Spain withdraw from Gibraltar, but Spain denied collusion with Britain and refused.
• Vice Admiral Mauff ordered the seven Capital Ships to open fire on Gibraltar Fortress.
• German 380mm shells battered the fortress, killing Spanish defenders despite failing to penetrate its strongest positions.
• Major General Donald ordered the Spanish fortress guns to counterattack, but their shells fell hundreds of meters short of the German ships.

The German Navy Mediterranean Fleet’s bombardment nearly destroyed Gibraltar Fortress and shattered the Spanish defenders’ morale. Major General Hans’s 2nd Marine Division landed, and the 4th Regiment captured the front-line positions as Spanish troops fled north.

• The German fleet’s 380mm guns destroyed Gibraltar’s fortifications, prompting many Spanish soldiers to flee despite Major General Donald’s orders to hold the fortress.
• Vice Admiral Mauff ordered the German Marines to land while the fleet shifted its main-gun fire inland and smaller ships supported the assault.
• Major General Hans ordered the 2nd Marine Division’s 4th Regiment to advance toward Gibraltar in landing craft.
• German naval fire and Marine Corps weapons battered the Spanish positions as the Marines landed and attacked.
• The 4th Regiment captured the Spanish front line within half an hour, and many Spanish troops fled north.

After the Spanish army fled Gibraltar, Germany halted its Marines at the border and prepared for defense. Alfonso XIII condemned Germany and ordered an offensive to retake Gibraltar, which began on February 2, 1916.

• Major General Donald ordered the Spanish troops to retreat from Gibraltar across the border into Spain.
• The German Marines captured Mount Takri, but Vice Admiral Mauff ordered them to hold their position and not cross into Spain.
• Alfonso XIII ordered Major General Donald removed from his post but spared him a military tribunal after his ministers warned of the effect on morale.
• Alfonso XIII ordered Spain to denounce Germany internationally and send elite troops to reclaim Gibraltar.
• On February 2, 1916, the Spanish Army launched a massive offensive against Gibraltar.

Major General Hans prepared the German Marines to defend Gibraltar as General Markimician reluctantly launched a Spanish assault. German naval guns destroyed the Spanish artillery, but Markimician sent more than ten thousand infantry forward, and the Germans opened fire as they approached.

• Major General Hans deployed the 2nd German Marine Division across Gibraltar’s narrow defenses and dismissed the threat posed by Spain’s hundred thousand troops.
• General Markimician ordered the attack despite fearing the German defenses and the deaths his soldiers would face.
• Spanish artillery began shelling, but German seaplanes spotted the guns and guided the Mediterranean Fleet’s seven capital ships to bombard them.
• German naval guns wrecked the Spanish artillery positions in less than twenty minutes.
• Markimician ordered more than ten thousand Spanish infantry to charge, and the German Marines met them with mortars and machine guns.

The Spanish Army launched an attack on the German Marine Corps positions at Gibraltar and was shattered by concentrated machine-gun, artillery, and battleship fire. The Spanish troops routed in less than half an hour, while German Marine Corps soldiers feared the nearby naval bombardment might hit their own positions.

• The Spanish Army attacked along a narrow front and came under dense German machine-gun, mortar, and grenade fire.
• The Spanish general ordered the troops to continue despite reports that a regiment had suffered heavy casualties in less than ten minutes.
• The German Marine Corps' 2nd Division bombarded the attackers with 150mm, 105mm, and 75mm guns.
• German battleship main guns struck the Spanish formations with high-explosive shells, devastating their ranks.
• The Spanish Army collapsed into a panicked rout, with fewer than half of its more than twenty thousand men fleeing back.

After Spain’s forces collapsed under German fire at Gibraltar, General Markimician halted the offensive and accepted responsibility for disobeying the King’s orders. King Alfonso XIII learned of the army’s weakness and agreed to ask the Americans to mediate and end the war.

• Spanish officers told General Markimician that heavy losses and shattered morale left the troops unable to continue fighting.
• General Markimician stopped the offensive and promised to bear responsibility for his decision.
• King Alfonso XIII flew into a rage after receiving the telegram from the front and threatened to punish the officers.
• Count Romanones reminded Alfonso XIII that Markimician was loyal and that his refusal showed how dire the situation had become.
• Fearing Germany might expand the war, Alfonso XIII agreed to have the Americans mediate immediately.

After Spain requested American mediation, Germany and Spain began negotiating an end to their fighting over Gibraltar. Qin Tian ordered Wachth to demand Gibraltar, one billion marks, and the Balearic Islands, leaving the talks to test whether Spain would accept Germany’s terms.

• Spain asked the United States to mediate its conflict with Germany, and both countries accepted the proposal.
• The American ambassador submitted the mediation request, and Wachth and the Spanish ambassador began talks at the American Embassy in Berlin.
• Qin Tian instructed Wachth to demand Gibraltar, one billion marks in compensation, and the Balearic Islands from Spain.
• Qin Tian explained that the islands would strengthen Germany’s position in the Mediterranean, and Wachth agreed to press the demands.
• Wachth presented Germany’s terms at the start of negotiations, stunning the American and Spanish ambassadors.

Wachth presented Spain with Germany’s demands for Gibraltar, one billion marks, and the Balearic Islands, threatening to resume the war if Spain refused. The Spanish government received the ultimatum and faced the prospect of accepting Germany’s terms or suffering a renewed offensive.

• Wachth rejected the American Ambassador’s proposal to settle the conflict by leasing Gibraltar and insisted that Spain accept all three German conditions.
• The Spanish Ambassador said Spain could not agree to the compensation or cession of the Balearic Islands without approval, while Wachth argued that Germany deserved compensation and gave Spain two days to decide.
• The American Ambassador told the Spanish Ambassador to report Germany’s demands to Spain because the United States could no longer influence the negotiations.
• The Spanish Ambassador sent the ultimatum to Spain, and Alfonso XIII angrily condemned Germany’s demands as excessive.
• Spain’s Military and Political Ministers remained silent as they recognized that Germany’s strength left Spain at its mercy.

Alfonso XIII struggled to respond to Germany’s demands, fearing war but resisting the loss of Gibraltar, the Balearic Islands, and one billion Mark. After Spain’s counteroffer failed and negotiations broke down, Oscar ordered German troops to advance toward the Pyrenees to intensify pressure on Spain.

• Alfonso XIII’s ministers warned him that Spain could neither defeat Germany in war nor count on American help to soften Germany’s terms.
• Count Romanones argued that Britain and the United States had drawn Spain into a trap, and Alfonso XIII blamed Preto for his role in the affair.
• Alfonso XIII threatened to expose American and British involvement, but Count Romanones said Germany already knew and would still take its anger out on Spain.
• Alfonso XIII offered to cede Gibraltar and pay one hundred million Mark, while refusing to surrender the Balearic Islands or pay the full compensation.
• When Spain rejected Germany’s terms before the two-day deadline, Wachth declared negotiations broken, and Alfonso XIII feared a German escalation.
• Oscar ordered the German Army’s 1st Army Corps in northern France to move toward the Pyrenees and appear ready to invade Spain.

As German troops approached the Pyrenees, Spain feared an invasion and King Alfonso XIII ordered the government to accept Germany’s terms. Spain signed an agreement ceding Gibraltar and the Balearic Islands and paying reparations, after which German troops withdrew.

• German advance forces reached the northern foothills of the Pyrenees, alarming Spain.
• Preto informed Alfonso XIII that German troops were approaching, and the king summoned his ministers.
• Count Romanones advised Alfonso XIII to accept Germany’s terms rather than risk an invasion.
• Alfonso XIII ordered the Spanish Ambassador to Germany to accept all of Germany’s terms.
• On February 5, the Spanish Ambassador signed an agreement ceding Gibraltar and the Balearic Islands and promising one billion Mark in reparations.
• Germany and Spain ended their conflict, and German troops withdrew.

Germany took control of Gibraltar and the Balearic Islands, then invaded Egypt and negotiated to make it a German Protectorate. Sultan Hussein Kamel accepted German control over Egypt’s military and police in exchange for keeping his throne.

• Spain ceded Gibraltar and the Balearic Islands to Germany and agreed to pay one billion marks in reparations.
• On January 8, 1916, the German Marine Corps’ 3rd Division landed at Alexandria, followed by the main force of the 8th Army Corps.
• On January 12, the German 8th Army Corps advanced toward Cairo and prepared to attack the city.
• Sultan Hussein Kamel secretly contacted the Germans and offered to make Egypt a German Protectorate if they guaranteed his rule.
• Oscar approved Ludendorff’s negotiations, and Germany agreed to preserve Hussein Kamel’s throne while reorganizing Egypt’s army and placing its police under German guidance.

After Germany defeated Britain in Egypt and seized the Suez Canal, Oscar arranged to repair and administer the waterway while securing German influence over Egypt. With Gibraltar and Suez under German control, Admiral Scheer declared the Mediterranean effectively Germany’s inland lake.

• The Egyptian army helped Germany defeat the British in Cairo and the wider campaign, while British forces damaged sections of the Suez Canal during their retreat.
• General Ludendorff reported that the 8th Army Corps had completed the Egyptian campaign in half a month and would rest before advancing into the Middle East.
• Oscar ordered the government and military to secure Egypt and established a canal management company, offering the Sultan twenty percent of the annual transit fees in return for canal security.
• Oscar approved a ten-battalion Canal Security Force funded by transit fees, despite Foreign Minister Wachth warning that other countries might object to militarizing the canal.
• Admiral Scheer celebrated that German control of Gibraltar and the Suez Canal had made the Mediterranean effectively an inland lake under German command.

Oscar discussed Germany’s Middle East strategy after Britain’s retreat and agreed to receive the princes of Nejd and Kuwait, who sought German support. He revealed the region’s vast oil reserves and ordered Germany to fill the power vacuum while securing its influence with local allies and military bases.

• Wachth told Oscar that the princes of Nejd and Kuwait would arrive in two days, and Oscar agreed to meet them.
• Bülow said the princes’ visit also amounted to offering their heirs as hostages to demonstrate loyalty to Germany.
• Oscar told Falkenhayn and the ministers that the Middle East contained enormous oil reserves, with more than sixty percent of the world’s oil concentrated there.
• Bülow supported bringing the Middle Eastern nations under German control, even if force became necessary.
• Oscar said Germany would support Nejd’s expansion across the Arabian Peninsula while establishing military bases and stationing troops in the Middle East.

Oscar outlined Germany’s terms for bringing Nejd and Kuwait under its guidance and ordered additional forces sent to prepare for an invasion of India. Meanwhile, Nejd’s Prince Abdul and Kuwait’s Prince Salim traveled to Germany for a secret visit, hoping to meet Oscar.

• Oscar told Prime Minister Bülow and Foreign Minister Wachth that Nejd could retain domestic autonomy while aligning its foreign policy and military with Germany, which would also gain mineral rights and a share of oil profits.
• Field Marshal Falkenhayn reported that German operations in Egypt and the Middle East were progressing smoothly and could enable an attack on India the following month.
• Oscar ordered the 4th Army Corps to join the 8th Army Corps for the invasion, while Germany prepared to face British forces and a rapidly armed Anglo-Indian Army.
• Prince Abdul and Prince Salim traveled aboard a German light cruiser toward Germany with a small delegation from Nejd and Kuwait.
• Prince Salim told Prince Abdul that they expected to reach Germany in two days and thought Oscar might receive them.

Prince Abdul and Prince Salim, along with their countries’ foreign ministers, arrived in Germany seeking German support for Nejd and Kuwait after Britain’s defeat. Impressed by Germany’s navy and welcomed by Emperor Qin Tian, they entered negotiations with high hopes.

• Prince Abdul and Prince Salim discussed how Nejd and Kuwait needed German protection now that Britain had fallen.
• Foreign Ministers Hamid and Ghazi privately considered the concessions their small, poor countries might need to make to secure German support.
• The delegations arrived at Wilhelmshaven on January 28 and were astonished by the German warships in port.
• Foreign Minister Wachth welcomed the delegations and told them Emperor Qin Tian would host them at a banquet.
• At the January 29 banquet, Prince Abdul excitedly greeted Qin Tian, and Ghazi discreetly reminded him to remain composed.

Germany negotiated with the Kingdom of Kuwait and the Kingdom of Nejd about their status after Britain’s defeat, and Kuwait agreed to become a German Protectorate. Kuwait accepted German control over its foreign policy, police training, military command, and possible troop deployments.

• Bülow and Wachth met Ghazi and Hamid secretly at the Prime Minister’s Residence to negotiate the two kingdoms’ future.
• Wachth explained that Britain’s former colonies were to be transferred to Germany, and Ghazi and Hamid recognized that Germany intended to control the region.
• Hamid announced that the Kingdom of Kuwait was willing to become a German Protectorate, confirming that its Emir had approved the decision.
• Wachth set out Germany’s conditions, including German guidance over domestic affairs, alignment in foreign policy, German-trained police, a German-assisted infantry Brigade, and possible German troop deployments.
• Hamid accepted the conditions on Kuwait’s behalf and pledged that the kingdom would become the German Empire’s most loyal Protectorate.

After Kuwait became a German Protectorate, Germany pressured Nejd to accept the same status and demanded control over its army and police. Foreign Minister Ghazi tried to preserve Nejd’s military authority by citing its planned war against the Rashid family, but Bülow’s threat left him with little room to refuse.

• Hamid signed Germany’s terms, making Kuwait a German Protectorate and placing its army and police under German control.
• Wachth asked Ghazi whether Nejd would become a Protectorate, and Ghazi offered to align Nejd’s foreign policy and military in wartime while keeping control of its army and police.
• Wachth insisted that Germany’s Protectorate conditions could not be changed, while Bülow said Germany would form three infantry divisions for Nejd.
• Ghazi explained that Nejd needed its army to defeat the Rashid family and annex Wajid, then promised to hand the army over for German reorganization afterward.
• Bülow offered German help against the Rashid family and Wajid, implying Germany could instead support Wajid against Nejd, and Ghazi recognized the threat left submission as his only option.

The Kingdom of Nejd and Kuwait became German protectorates, agreeing to German control in exchange for security and promised oil investments. Germany and Nejd defeated the Kingdom of Wajid, which Nejd annexed as it renamed itself the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, leaving Germany in control of the Middle East.

• Ghazi agreed to make the Kingdom of Nejd a German protectorate and signed the treaty on behalf of King Abdulaziz.
• Bülow promised investment in Nejd and Kuwait's oil resources, offering each kingdom twenty percent of the profits after costs.
• Prince Abdul stayed in Berlin to study, while Prince Salim attended the Imperial Army University; King Abdulaziz and Emir Jaber II accepted Germany's terms.
• In early February 1916, the German 8th Army Corps crossed the Suez Canal and attacked the Kingdom of Wajid as Nejd prepared a pincer attack.
• German forces routed Wajid's main army in less than a week and left the remaining troops to Nejd's forces.
• Nejd annexed Wajid and renamed itself the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, while Germany gained control over the Middle East.

Baron Charles Hardinge met with Lord William Nicholson to discuss the approaching German threat to India and the British Empire’s lack of strength to stop it. They planned to resist as long as possible, with Hardinge hoping to turn India into a costly quagmire for Germany.

• Baron Charles Hardinge remained in office after the British Cabinet rejected his request to resign and ordered him to extract more wealth and supplies from India for Canada.
• Lord William Nicholson reported that Germany had taken the Suez Canal and that British forces were withdrawing from the Middle East.
• Hardinge and Nicholson agreed that war in India was becoming unavoidable and that British forces had little chance of defeating the Germans.
• Nicholson said delaying the Germans could allow more British personnel and supplies to reach Canada and support a future resurgence.
• Hardinge proposed using India’s large population and the British Empire’s local foundations to bog Germany down in a prolonged war.