Recaps

The German and Austro-Hungarian fleets formed battle lines for an unavoidable clash, with Admiral Hipper assigning German ships to engage specific enemies and concentrate on the Radetzky-class battleships. The battle began at 9:25 a.m., leaving the two immense fleets exchanging fire in the largest naval collision in history.

• The German and Austro-Hungarian fleets formed parallel battle lines as their smaller warships withdrew.
• Admiral Hipper assigned German capital ships to engage their Austro-Hungarian counterparts and ordered a concentrated attack on the four Radetzky-class battleships.
• Admiral Hipper ordered his fleet to fight at fifteen kilometers and prevent the Austro-Hungarian ships from closing within twelve kilometers.
• Admiral Anton Haus ordered his ships to prepare for battle and urged the Radetzky-class captains to hold out as long as possible.
• The battle began at 9:25 a.m., as the two fleets' capital ships opened the largest naval clash in history.

The German Navy Combined Fleet and the Austro-Hungarian Empire Navy began a major naval battle, with Admiral Hipper exploiting the enemy’s weaker rear sector. The Austro-Hungarian ships fought fiercely, but German fire control and superior numbers left their four Radetzky-class Battleships in grave danger.

• The Austro-Hungarian Empire Navy opened fire at sixteen thousand meters, but its shells fell harmlessly short of the German fleet.
• Admiral Hipper ordered the German Navy to wait until the fleets closed to fifteen thousand meters, then the Battleship Kaiser and the other German battleships opened fire.
• German ships encircled the four Austro-Hungarian Radetzky-class Battleships, leaving them badly outnumbered and under heavy attack.
• Admiral Anton Haus ordered the Radetzky-class Battleships to hold out and told the rest of the fleet that their sacrifice was buying time to defeat the Germans.
• Both fleets continued firing, but German shells landed closer to their targets while Austro-Hungarian shots often fell hundreds of meters away.

The German Navy overwhelmed the Austro-Hungarian Empire Navy's Radetzky-class Battleships during the battle, sinking Szent István and then Tegetthoff. The two remaining Radetzky-class Battleships were left in an even more dangerous encirclement.

• Tegetthoff was hit by a 380mm shell from Westfalen, but its crew fought the resulting fire and returned fire against Nassau.
• Tegetthoff's 305mm shell failed to penetrate Nassau's waterline armor, and Nassau and Westfalen concentrated their fire on Tegetthoff.
• Blücher destroyed Szent István's aft steering gear and propellers, after which Blücher, Von der Tann, and Lothringen hit it repeatedly until it sank.
• Nassau and Westfalen sank Tegetthoff, leaving the Austro-Hungarian Empire Navy's two remaining Radetzky-class Battleships surrounded.

The German Navy sank the Austro-Hungarian Empire Navy’s four Radetzky-class Battleships and widened its overwhelming advantage. Admiral Anton Haus refused to surrender and ordered his remaining ships to fight to the death.

• Admiral Hipper ordered the German fleet to sink the remaining Radetzky-class Battleships and destroy the Austro-Hungarian Empire Navy’s Capital Ships before sunset.
• German Capital Ships encircled Viribus Unitis and Prince Eugen after Saint Istvan and Tegetthoff had been sunk.
• Viribus Unitis was battered by German shells, split in two, and sank with nearly all its crew; Prince Eugen was sunk shortly afterward.
• An adjutant reported that the Austro-Hungarian Empire Navy had twelve Capital Ships left against Germany’s twenty-two.
• Admiral Anton Haus ordered every ship to stand and fight rather than retreat or surrender.

The German Navy Combined Fleet overwhelmed the Austro-Hungarian Empire Navy, sinking its remaining battleships after Admiral Anton Haus rejected an offer to surrender. Haus went down with his flagship, and the entire Austro-Hungarian capital-ship force was destroyed.

• Admiral Hipper reassigned targets so German capital ships outnumbered most Austro-Hungarian ships two to one.
• Admiral Anton Haus accepted that defeat was inevitable but ordered his navy to fight to the bitter end.
• German 410mm shells sank the Ferdinand I and Karl I, followed by the Francis I, Joseph II, and Leopold II.
• Haus refused Hipper's surrender offer and replied that his fleet would fight to the death for honor.
• The Monarch of Austria-Hungary was sunk at 11:26, and Haus chose to go down with his flagship.
• The German fleet sank every remaining Austro-Hungarian capital ship.

The German Navy defeated the Austro-Hungarian Empire Navy, sinking all sixteen of its Capital Ships and capturing or destroying most of its remaining vessels. Admiral Hipper left the Indian Ocean Fleet and Pacific Fleet to hunt down the few escapees, while Oscar learned that German casualties had been light.

• Admiral Hipper ordered the German fleet to force the remaining Austro-Hungarian Empire warships to surrender or sink them.
• Many Austro-Hungarian Empire officers and sailors surrendered, while the ships that resisted were pursued and mostly sunk; fewer than ten escaped into the Indian Ocean.
• Admiral Hipper assigned the Indian Ocean Fleet, supported by the Pacific Fleet, to pursue the escapees.
• The German fleet cleared the battlefield and rescued sailors from the water.
• Admiral Reinhard Scheer and Field Marshal Falkenhayn reported the victory to Oscar, who learned that fewer than one thousand German personnel had been killed or seriously wounded.

Oscar assessed the American fleet’s presence near the Azores and Germany’s naval balance, while insisting that Germany avoid provoking war and focus on expanding its carrier forces. The chapter left Oscar confident that Germany would stay ahead as the United States and Britain developed aircraft carriers of their own.

• Oscar asked whether the American fleet was still in the Eastern Atlantic, and Admiral Scheer Reinhard reported that it was about two hundred kilometers north of the Azores, with the Atlantic Fleet nearby and German carriers farther east.
• Admiral Scheer Reinhard warned that the American fleet’s eleven battleships and additional ships under construction threatened Germany’s naval advantage, while Oscar noted that the Americans had made no provocative moves.
• Oscar explained that Germany had no intention of starting a war and wanted to consolidate its gains, despite viewing the American fleet’s presence as a threat.
• Oscar argued that Germany should welcome American investment in battleships because aircraft carriers would dominate future naval warfare, and he described plans for a larger, more powerful German carrier fleet.
• Admiral Scheer Reinhard warned that the United States and Britain were jointly developing aircraft carriers, but Oscar insisted Germany must keep advancing so they could never catch up.

Oscar rejected Falkenhayn’s proposal to destroy the American fleet, deciding Germany should avoid war with the United States while it consolidated its recent gains and prepared for other threats. He agreed to consider establishing an Atlantic Fleet base in the Azores after the confrontation ended.

• Falkenhayn urged Oscar to use Germany’s Atlantic and carrier fleets to destroy the American fleet of eleven Capital Ships.
• Oscar refused, fearing a war with the United States would disrupt Germany’s development and leave its colonies exposed to Britain, the Island Nation, and the growing power in Eastern Europe.
• Falkenhayn and Scheer accepted Oscar’s decision, recognizing that Germany needed time to integrate and strengthen itself.
• Scheer proposed establishing the Atlantic Fleet’s home port in the Azores, and Oscar said he would have the Cabinet explore the matter after the confrontation.

Oscar had decided Germany needed to secure Portugal and the Azores, but the immediate crisis remained the tense standoff between the German Atlantic Fleet and the American fleet. Both commanders considered attacking, yet neither had received permission from home, and the fleets continued to watch each other in the North Atlantic.

• Oscar assessed the Azores’ strategic value and resolved that Germany would gain control of Portugal and the islands, preferably by political means rather than invasion.
• General Henry Mayo complained aboard the Colorado that the American fleet had waited half a month without clear orders and argued that this was its best chance to destroy the German Atlantic Fleet.
• Vice Admiral Burdick complained aboard the Bavaria that Germany had not authorized the Carrier Fleet to help attack the Americans.
• Vice Admiral Schmidt joked that the Carrier Fleet might destroy the Americans without leaving anything for Burdick’s fleet, and Burdick agreed they were eager for real combat.

The American Cabinet discussed whether to risk war with Germany over the Atlantic fleet standoff, weighing the chance of destroying the German Atlantic Fleet against the threat of German retaliation. President Woodrow Wilson remained silent and judged that the United States was not strong enough to defeat Germany.

• Secretary of the Navy Daniels warned that the German and American fleets had faced off for half a month and that a sudden clash could still occur.
• General William Benson said the American fleet could likely defeat the German Atlantic Fleet but would be unable to withstand the German Navy's main force afterward.
• Franklin Lane and other Cabinet members warned that a German counterattack could leave the East Coast exposed to bombardment.
• Daniels argued that Germany had to retain naval forces in the Far East, while Secretary of War Garrison urged the United States not to provoke a war before its strength improved.
• President Woodrow Wilson listened to the Cabinet and concluded that the United States could not defeat Germany at that time.

After the German Navy defeated the Austro-Hungarian Empire Navy with minimal losses, President Wilson decided the United States should avoid a confrontation and ordered the American fleet to retreat. The American Navy withdrew across the Atlantic, then learned that Germany’s home-based aircraft carriers had also vanished into the ocean.

• Secretary of State Bryan and President Wilson agreed that the United States should not risk further support for the failing Austro-Hungarian Empire.
• General Benson urged the Americans to consider striking while the German Navy was occupied, but Bryan proposed waiting for the naval battle’s outcome.
• After hearing that the German Navy had defeated the Austro-Hungarian Empire Navy without significant damage, Wilson ordered the American fleet to withdraw.
• General Benson relayed the order to General Mayo, who turned the Atlantic Fleet away from the confrontation.
• The German Atlantic Fleet followed the Americans across the Atlantic before turning back, and American intelligence reported that Germany’s homeland aircraft carriers had disappeared.

After the German Navy drove off the Americans, Oscar decided not to search for Karl I and remained confident that Germany would annex Austria. Karl I reached the United States after a dangerous month-long voyage and, on learning that the Austro-Hungarian Empire Navy had been destroyed, swore revenge on Wilhelm III and the Hohenzollerns.

• Admiral Scheer reported that the Americans had withdrawn, and Oscar ordered the Navy to focus on stabilizing Germany’s annexation of Austria.
• Admiral Scheer revealed that Karl I had escaped and might be heading to the United States, but Oscar rejected a costly search for him.
• Karl I’s family waited in the United States, while the Americans postponed plans for a government-in-exile because Karl I’s fate remained unknown.
• Karl I’s cruiser reached American waters under an American flag, revealed its passengers, and was escorted to Naval Base Norfolk in secret.
• The American Navy told Karl I that the Austro-Hungarian Empire Navy had been destroyed and Admiral Anton Haus had died, prompting Karl I to vow revenge on Wilhelm III and the Hohenzollern Royal Family.

After escaping to the United States, Karl I sought President Woodrow Wilson’s backing to restore the Austro-Hungarian Empire and oppose Germany. He established a government in exile, but his appeal found little support among people who had accepted the empire’s collapse.

• Karl I met President Woodrow Wilson and vowed to avenge the Austro-Hungarian Empire’s destruction and Admiral Anton Haus’s death.
• Wilson promised American support, including funding, recruits of Austro-Hungarian descent, and weapons for resistance efforts.
• On April 21, 1917, Karl I announced the establishment of an Austro-Hungarian government in exile and called on the empire’s people and former states to resist Germany.
• Karl I’s call gained little traction because many people had accepted the empire’s end, while Austrians saw little reason to oppose German rule.

Germany completed its overseas conquests and expanded its industrial and imperial power. At the end of 1917, Oscar and senior naval officials attended the keel-laying for the first of four new Deutschland-class aircraft carriers, leaving construction underway and plans to expand the fleet.

• By June 1917, German forces had captured Australia and Britain's African colonies, completing Germany's overseas conquests.
• Germany's colonies and integration of Belgium and northern France fueled industrial growth, while Oscar's policies improved people's livelihoods and encouraged population growth.
• Oscar, Admiral Scheer, Admiral Hipper, and Lieutenant General Richter Fiers attended the keel-laying ceremony at German Shipyard.
• Admiral Scheer said the new carrier would bring Germany's fleet to ten aircraft carriers, and Oscar proposed assigning at least two to each of the Navy's five grand fleets.
• Admiral Scheer announced that four Deutschland-class carriers—Deutschland, Germania, Aryan, and Oskar—would be built, with all expected to enter service within three years.

Oscar inspected Germany’s next-generation Constellation-class aircraft carrier plans and urged the Navy to adopt new technologies and an angled deck in later variants. He also reviewed the Army’s tank and armored-vehicle programs and the Air Force’s priority aircraft projects as Germany prepared for future wars.

• Oscar inspected the Imperial Navy’s proposed 33,000-ton next-generation carrier, designed to carry more than ninety aircraft and improve on earlier classes.
• Admiral Reinhard Scheer asked Oscar to name the carrier class, and Oscar designated it the Constellation-class, naming its first four ships Aries, Taurus, Gemini, and Cancer.
• Oscar proposed adding an angled deck to a later batch to improve aircraft launch and recovery efficiency, and urged engineers to adopt new technologies.
• Oscar returned to Berlin and inspected the German Heavy Machinery Manufacturing Plant, where the Army was developing Panther Series medium tanks, Tiger Series heavy tanks, armored fighting vehicles, and armored personnel carriers.
• Oscar directed Germany to pursue Army motorization and mechanization, while the Air Force prioritized monoplane all-metal fighters and long-range strategic bombers.

Britain and the United States began construction of their jointly developed aircraft carrier Langley as they worked to catch up with Germany’s military strength. The chapter left their cooperation expanding across naval, tank, and aircraft development, though their new equipment still lagged far behind Germany’s.

• President Woodrow Wilson addressed American and British officials at the Langley keel-laying ceremony and urged the United States and Britain to unite against Germany.
• The first keel of Langley was placed on the slipway, beginning construction of the Allies’ first aircraft carrier.
• The United States and Britain planned to use Langley to gain carrier-building and operational experience, though its small capacity, low speed, and open hangar made it rudimentary.
• Britain and the United States continued sharing technology on warships, and their jointly developed M1 tank entered testing.
• The jointly developed P-17 fighter began test flights, offering an improvement over Britain’s previous aircraft despite its modest performance.

The Island Nation’s naval leaders feared Germany’s growing Pacific presence and discussed expanding their fleet to prepare for a future war. They considered plans for more powerful battleships, but Admiral Katō Tomosaburō worried about how the Island Nation would pay for them.

• The Island Nation rebuilt its military after Germany’s earlier defeat, commissioning Fusō-class Battleships and building additional capital ships.
• Admiral Katō Tomosaburō warned that Germany’s Pacific Fleet had moved into Lion City and threatened the Island Nation.
• Admiral Shimamura Hayao and Admiral Yamashita Gentarō compared German ships’ firepower and numbers with the Island Nation Navy’s weaker fleet.
• Admiral Shimamura Hayao proposed building Nagato-class and Kaga-class Battleships and exploiting a future German-American war to seize territory.
• Admiral Katō Tomosaburō questioned the plans because the Island Nation needed money to expand its navy.

At a Cabinet meeting, Navy Minister Katō Tomosaburō warned that Germany’s growing Pacific presence threatened the Island Nation and urged a major naval buildup. Masatake Terauchi approved a target of sixteen capital ships and called for expanding the army, while ministers looked for loans and higher rice prices to fund preparations for war.

• Katō Tomosaburō told the Cabinet that German warships in Lion City and near the Island Nation’s coast posed an enormous threat.
• Katō argued that the Island Nation could eventually challenge Germany’s Pacific and Indian Ocean fleets by increasing naval investment.
• Katō proposed building enough capital ships to reach a fleet of sixteen, or ideally twenty, and Terauchi said sixteen might be affordable.
• Kazue Fujita warned that the government would struggle to fund the plan, so Terauchi ordered officials to seek another American loan and raise rice prices.
• Terauchi called for the Imperial Army to grow to forty standing divisions within ten years and be ready for war.

Admiral Reinhard Scheer warned Oscar that the United States, Britain, and the Island Nation were expanding their navies, threatening Germany’s advantage. Oscar insisted Germany should prioritize aircraft carriers over Capital Ships and said its future fleets could defeat its rivals.

• Admiral Reinhard Scheer told Oscar that the United States and Britain had begun building the Langley aircraft carrier and might build more as they mastered the technology.
• Oscar said Germany would continue improving its planned carriers and carrier-based aircraft, and promised the Imperial Navy could expand its carrier force rapidly in a future war.
• Admiral Reinhard Scheer warned that American and British Battleship construction could give them more Capital Ships than Germany, but Oscar rejected restarting Germany’s Capital Ship program.
• Admiral Reinhard Scheer reported that the Island Nation had commissioned two Fusō-class Battleships, was building two Ise-class Battleships, and planned Nagato-class Battleships.
• Oscar said Germany’s Pacific Fleet and Indian Ocean Fleet carriers would be sufficient to deal with the Island Nation.

Oscar proposed an Arms Control Conference in Berlin to ease the arms race and improve Germany’s international image. Germany issued an invitation with conditions that preserved its naval advantage, leaving the other powers to decide whether to attend.

• Oscar considered calling an arms control conference to slow military expansion and reduce the cost of a future war.
• Oscar presented the proposal to the Imperial Council, and Prime Minister Bülow and Admiral Scheer Reinhard questioned whether the United States and the Island Nation would agree.
• Oscar said the conference would demonstrate Germany’s desire for peace even if other countries rejected its conditions.
• Foreign Minister Wachth proposed inviting the United States, the Island Nation, the Ottoman Turkish Empire, and the Kingdom of Italy to Berlin.
• Oscar stipulated that the Imperial Navy’s capital-ship and aircraft-carrier tonnage must exceed the combined totals of the United States and the Island Nation.
• In July 1918, the German government invited major powers to a Berlin conference on controlling military expansion.

Germany's Arms Control Conference drew delegations from the United States, Island Nation, Ottoman Turkish Empire, and Kingdom of Italy to Berlin. As the conference approached, the United States and Island Nation agreed to resist limits on their military development, while the Ottoman Turkish Empire and Kingdom of Italy assured German Emperor Qin Tian they would remain aligned with Germany.

• Germany invited the great powers to an Arms Control Conference in Berlin, and the United States, Island Nation, Ottoman Turkish Empire, and Kingdom of Italy agreed to attend.
• The delegations arrived in Berlin ahead of the conference scheduled to open on September 18, with the Island Nation delegation arriving first.
• Ichiro Motono and Admiral Katō Tomosaburō met secretly with Bryan and Daniels, and the US and Island Nation representatives agreed to oppose restrictions unless Germany's military was restricted too.
• German Emperor Qin Tian received the Ottoman Turkish Empire and Kingdom of Italy delegations, whose leaders assured him they would stay aligned with Germany.

The Arms Control Conference opened in Berlin, where Germany proposed strict limits on naval tonnage and allocations that heavily favored its own fleet. The United States and the Island Nation rejected Germany’s proposed limits and demanded much larger Capital Ship quotas, leaving the conference at an impasse.

• Bülow opened the Arms Control Conference and then left the meeting to Germany’s representatives, Wachth and Admiral Scheer.
• Wachth proposed limiting naval armaments, and Scheer presented tonnage quotas that gave Germany 1.5 million tons of Capital Ships while assigning far less to the other nations.
• Aixi and Orlando supported Germany’s allocation, while the American and Island Nation representatives objected to their low quotas.
• Daniels demanded 1.5 million tons of Capital Ships for the United States, matching Germany’s limit.
• Katō Tomosaburō demanded 1.2 million tons for the Island Nation, and Wachth and Scheer rejected the prospect of Germany losing its naval advantage.

Germany, the United States, and the Island Nation failed to agree on limits for Capital Ship tonnage at the Arms Control Conference. The talks remained deadlocked, and the delegations could not proceed to discuss aircraft carriers or cruisers.

• Wachth offered to raise the American limit to 900,000 tons and the Island Nation limit to 600,000 tons, but Bryan demanded 1.2 million tons for the United States and 900,000 for the Island Nation.
• Scheer rejected the American and Island Nation demands, while the two delegations refused to accept Germany's lower limits, leaving the conference deadlocked.
• Wachth adjourned the meeting, and he and Scheer reported the negotiations to Emperor Qin Tian, who was unconcerned by the possibility of failure.
• The delegations resumed talks the following day but remained divided over Capital Ship tonnage, so they did not discuss aircraft carrier or cruiser allocations.

The Arms Control Conference collapsed over disagreements about capital ship tonnage, and Germany blamed the United States and the Island Nation for its failure. President Woodrow Wilson ordered the American Navy’s shipbuilding program to continue, while the Island Nation remained focused on defeating Germany and seizing its colonies; rising financial pressure later slowed both countries’ military expansion.

• After a week without agreement, Imperial Prime Minister Bülow suspended the Arms Control Conference.
• Foreign Minister Wachth blamed the United States and the Island Nation for the conference’s failure, damaging their international reputations.
• President Woodrow Wilson and Secretary of State Bryan discussed Germany’s propaganda campaign and its effect on public opinion.
• President Woodrow Wilson ordered Minister Daniels to continue the American Navy’s shipbuilding program.
• The Island Nation continued pursuing its goal of defeating Germany and taking its Far Eastern and Indian colonies.
• As military expansion strained their finances, the United States and the Island Nation slowed their buildup.

Oscar considered the Azores as a strategic Atlantic base for Germany and sent Foreign Minister Wachth to negotiate their purchase or lease from Portugal. Wachth arrived in Lisbon, while Oscar ordered the Cabinet and military to prepare for the possibility of taking the islands by force.

• Vice Admiral Burdick told Oscar that Scapa Flow no longer suited the Atlantic Fleet and that Germany needed a better base.
• Oscar and Admiral Scheer discussed acquiring the Azores, which Portugal controlled, and agreed to pursue a peaceful deal first.
• Oscar instructed Wachth to seek to buy the Azores for no more than five hundred million Marks or lease them for ten million Marks a year, ideally for ninety-nine years.
• Oscar told the Cabinet and military to prepare a plan to seize the Azores if Portugal rejected the proposal.
• Wachth arrived in Lisbon on November 2, 1918, for an official visit to Portugal.