Recaps

After the Normandy sank, French and Italian commanders grew determined to withdraw from the battle, while Admiral Jellicoe struggled to hold the Combined Fleet together. Germany’s eleven battlecruisers approached to reinforce the main fleet, poised to overwhelm the Allies.

• Admiral Lame saw the Normandy sink and sent Admiral Jellicoe a telegram urging the Combined Fleet to retreat.
• Admiral Jellicoe and Vice Admiral David Beatty received the French message and argued over Admiral Lame’s refusal to continue fighting.
• Admiral Paul learned that the Allies had lost four battleships while Germany had lost none, and ordered a telegram asking Admiral Lame whether France would withdraw.
• Admiral Paul decided Italy would retreat with France if the French Navy left the battle.
• Vice Admiral Spee’s eleven battlecruisers approached and prepared to intercept a British battle line by crossing the T.

The German Navy's Battlecruiser Squadron arrived and concentrated its fire on the British Battleship Nevada. After the battered ship began flooding and listing, Vice Admiral Martin ordered the crew to abandon ship and transferred his command to the Battleship New York.

• Vice Admiral Spee ordered eleven German battlecruisers to open fire on the Nevada after they seized Crossing the T.
• Vice Admiral Martin ordered the Nevada to turn, but German shells struck her bow, turret, side armor, and superstructure.
• The Nevada took more than ten large-caliber hits in three minutes, suffered extensive flooding, and began listing heavily.
• Vice Admiral Martin ordered the crew to abandon the Nevada and moved his command to the Battleship New York.

Vice Admiral Spee redirected the German Battlecruisers from the sinking Battleship Nevada to the Battleship Oklahoma, which was destroyed by concentrated fire and abandoned. Vice Admiral Martin’s fleet was trapped in a hopeless position, and the French and Italians withdrew from the battle line.

• Vice Admiral Spee ordered the eleven German Battlecruisers to target the Battleship Oklahoma after the Battleship Nevada began sinking.
• German shells battered the Battleship Oklahoma, disabled its command and superstructure, and flooded its hull.
• A shell from the Battleship Friedrich Karl detonated the Battleship Oklahoma’s magazine, destroying its stern and prompting the captain to order the crew to abandon ship.
• Vice Admiral Martin realized his fleet had lost two Battleships and was trapped between the German Navy’s 2nd Battle Line and Battlecruiser Squadron.
• Admiral John Jellicoe and Vice Admiral David Beatty assessed the Allies’ overwhelming disadvantage as a staff officer reported that the French and Italians had retreated.
• Admiral John Jellicoe denounced the French and Italians for withdrawing without orders.

After the French and Italian fleets fled, Admiral John Jellicoe ordered the remaining British ships to break out rather than face certain destruction. Admiral Reinhard Scheer sent the German fleet and carrier-based aircraft in pursuit, turning the battle into a race to sink the fleeing British ships before nightfall.

• Admiral John Jellicoe and Vice Admiral David Beatty recognized that the British fleet could not defeat the Germans after the French and Italian ships withdrew.
• Admiral John Jellicoe ordered the British warships to flee in separate directions, and their captains forced their boilers to increase speed.
• Admiral Reinhard Scheer ordered the German fleet to pursue the British and requested carrier-based aircraft from Your Highness.
• The German Battlecruiser Squadron led the pursuit as the British ships tried to escape before darkness fell.

After the Allied fleet’s defeat, Admiral Jellicoe chose to stay with the surviving British ships while Vice Admiral Beatty escaped aboard Tiger. The German Navy pursued the British and continued destroying Vice Admiral Martin’s trapped American battleships, leaving New York under heavy fire.

• Admiral Jellicoe refused to leave the fleet, and Vice Admiral Beatty boarded Tiger to carry news of the defeat back to Britain.
• Tiger sped toward the British mainland as the German Navy pursued the remaining British warships and prepared to finish off the American battleships.
• Admiral Reinhard Scheer led the 1st Battle Line after the British while three Mackensen-class battlecruisers encircled New York.
• Vice Admiral Martin watched New York’s guns fire on Mackensen, but their shells missed.
• A 380mm shell from Mackensen penetrated New York above the waterline and tore a large hole in its hull, while the Americans continued fighting fiercely.

The German battleships Bavaria and Brandenburg cornered the British Battleship Vengeance and battered her until Admiral John Jellicoe ordered the crew to abandon ship. Jellicoe remained aboard and sank with the Vengeance into the Atlantic Ocean.

• Bavaria pursued the Vengeance as both battleships exchanged fire, and Brandenburg joined the encirclement.
• The Vengeance hit Bavaria's bow, but Bavaria and Brandenburg returned fire and destroyed Turret No. 3, cutting the Vengeance's firepower in half.
• Admiral Reinhard Scheer ordered Bavaria and Brandenburg to close from 15,000 meters to 8,000 meters and finish off the Vengeance.
• After the Vengeance took more than ten 380mm hits, Admiral John Jellicoe ordered the crew to abandon ship.
• Jellicoe locked himself in his cabin and sank with the Vengeance.

The German Navy sank the British battleships New York and Texas as its encirclement offensive crushed the Allied fleet. Vice Admiral David Beatty fled aboard Tiger, but German aircraft arrived as the battlecruiser tried to escape.

• Vice Admiral Martin ordered the crew to abandon New York and escaped aboard a launch as German shells set the ship ablaze and damaged its bow.
• New York sank, and Texas was sunk soon afterward by three German Derfflinger-class battleships.
• Vice Admiral Spee ordered German battleships to pursue the fleeing Allied warships and destroy the remaining capital ships.
• Vice Admiral David Beatty learned that Vengeance had sunk with Admiral John Jellicoe aboard and concluded that the Royal Navy had suffered an unprecedented defeat.
• Beatty received word that New York and Texas had also sunk, then heard an alarm announcing the arrival of German aircraft.

German carrier-based aircraft crippled and sank Tiger, while the French and Italian battleships surrendered to avoid the same fate. Vice Admiral Spee’s fleet took possession of the six surrendered battleships, though Admiral Lame and Admiral Paul escaped aboard destroyers.

• German fighters strafed Tiger as bombers damaged it with a bomb and torpedo bombers struck it with two torpedoes.
• Tiger lost its steering gear, and another wave of German aircraft hit it with three bombs and four torpedoes.
• Vice Admiral David Beatty ordered Tiger abandoned, and the battlecruiser capsized and sank.
• Admiral Lame and Admiral Paul ordered the French and Italian battleships to surrender by raising white flags and shutting down their boilers.
• Vice Admiral Spee’s fleet took over the six surrendered battleships, but Admiral Lame and Admiral Paul escaped aboard destroyers.

After the German High Seas Fleet destroyed the British capital ships and captured French and Italian battleships, Scheer explained that Germany would sell many of its older capital ships and build its strength around aircraft carriers. Oscar received news of the victory and felt confident that the Empire would win the war.

• Hipper reported that the British capital ships had been sunk, while some smaller warships escaped.
• Spee reported that the fleet had captured four French battleships and two Italian battleships, and Scheer ordered them repaired and later sold.
• Scheer told Hipper and Spee that Germany would sell many older capital ships and rely on aircraft carriers as the navy's main force.
• Scheer said Germany could later capture Britain's unfinished warships after defeating the country.
• Hipper said the victory results were ready to report to the Emperor, and Oscar was overjoyed when he heard the news.

Emperor Oscar learned that the Imperial Navy had decisively defeated the Allied Powers’ fleet at little cost, confirming aircraft carriers as the navy’s future focus. He expected France and Italy to surrender soon and prepared for either British capitulation or an invasion of Britain.

• Oscar waited in his office for news of the decisive naval battle and considered the Imperial Navy’s future development.
• Tirpitz and Falkenhayn arrived smiling, and Oscar asked first about German losses.
• Tirpitz reported that the Imperial Navy had lost no Capital Ships beyond the earlier loss of Blücher and had suffered only limited damage and other losses.
• Tirpitz revealed that the Imperial Navy had annihilated the Allied fleet’s Capital Ships, with French and Italian battleships surrendering and carrier-based aircraft sinking twelve enemy Capital Ships.
• Oscar praised the aircraft carriers’ performance and agreed that carriers and carrier-based aircraft should become the navy’s development priority.
• Falkenhayn declared that the Allied navies had been wiped out, and Oscar predicted France and Italy would soon surrender while ordering preparations to punish or invade Britain.

Churchill received Admiral Beatty’s report that the Allied fleet had been catastrophically defeated, with every British Capital Ship lost and Admiral Jellicoe killed. He left to inform Prime Minister Asquith and discuss Britain’s remaining options.

• Churchill waited in his office for news of the decisive naval battle.
• Churchill’s secretary reported that Admiral Jellicoe had been killed and delivered Admiral Beatty’s Telegram.
• Churchill read that the Allied fleet had lost every Capital Ship while sinking only one German Battlecruiser, and cursed the French and Italian fleets for fleeing.
• Churchill concluded that the Royal Navy and British Empire were finished and ordered a car to take him to Prime Minister Asquith.

After the Royal Navy was annihilated by the German fleet, Churchill and the British Cabinet confronted the Empire’s desperate choices. The chapter ended with Churchill rejecting surrender and arguing that Britain should fight to the bitter end.

• Churchill arrived at Prime Minister Asquith’s residence, where the Cabinet gathered to hear the outcome of the naval battle.
• Churchill confirmed that every Royal Navy capital ship had been sunk and that the French and Italian fleets had surrendered to Germany.
• Asquith and the other ministers blamed the French and Italians for fleeing, while Churchill knew their absence would not have saved the Royal Navy.
• Sir Edward Grey said Britain could either surrender or continue fighting, and warned that surrender could cost it its colonies, parts of the homeland, and its status as a great power.
• Churchill declared that Britain could not surrender to Germany and should fight to the bitter end.

Churchill urged Prime Minister Asquith and the Cabinet to resist Germany rather than surrender, despite the likely devastation of Britain. He argued that if the mainland fell, the British Empire could continue the war from its colonies, and the Cabinet considered his proposal.

• Churchill argued that Britain should fight to the bitter end, while Sir Edward Grey warned that the mainland could be devastated.
• Richard Haldane told Asquith that Britain had two million troops but lacked sufficient equipment and training to defend against Germany’s elite forces.
• Churchill proposed expanding the army further and relying on the Channel and German supply difficulties to limit an invasion force.
• Lloyd George asked what Britain should do if resistance failed, and Asquith weighed the risks of fighting against the costs of surrender.
• Churchill said the government could retreat to India, Canada, or Australia and continue the war if Germany took the mainland, prompting the Cabinet to see the colonies as a possible refuge.

After Churchill’s mainland-defense plan was approved, Prime Minister Asquith decided to resign and try to escape the burden of leading Britain through the war. Lloyd George refused to succeed him, leaving Asquith without an obvious replacement.

• The Cabinet approved Churchill’s proposal, and Asquith appointed Churchill to take full responsibility for defending the British mainland.
• Asquith told Lloyd George that he wanted to resign as Prime Minister, citing his worsening health and Britain’s dire situation.
• Lloyd George urged Asquith to remain in office, fearing that he would be expected to take over the failing government.
• Asquith said he would submit his resignation to the King the next morning and identified Lloyd George as his customary successor.
• Lloyd George firmly refused the position and threatened to resign himself if Asquith insisted.

Asquith decided to resign as Prime Minister and, with Lloyd George's support, persuaded Churchill to succeed him. After George V approved Asquith's resignation and the Cabinet backed Churchill, Churchill became the new Prime Minister of the British Empire.

• Lloyd George proposed finding a successor so Asquith could resign without making him Prime Minister, and they agreed Churchill was the best candidate.
• Asquith summoned Churchill and offered him the Prime Minister's office, which Churchill accepted after considering the advantages of leading Britain's war effort.
• Asquith formally resigned to George V, who approved the resignation despite first trying to persuade him to stay.
• Asquith recommended Churchill as his successor, and the Cabinet's support convinced George V to appoint Churchill Prime Minister.

After becoming Prime Minister, Churchill prepared Britain for a German attack and secured George V’s support for homeland defense. He left the king backing his plan to resist the Germans, with Canada as a fallback if Britain fell.

• Churchill took office, ordered the army to expand and train, and directed defenses to be built across Britain.
• Churchill told George V that Britain had lost the naval battle because its ships sacrificed protection for speed and firepower, while German ships were more resilient.
• Churchill explained that German aircraft and tactics had helped destroy British ships and frighten France and Italy into surrendering.
• George V agreed that Britain should develop aircraft and promised Churchill full support for resisting a German invasion.
• Churchill told George V to prepare to flee to Canada with the Empire’s wealth if Britain lost, so resistance could continue from there.

In Toulouse, President Poincaré and the French Cabinet waited for news of the Combined Fleet’s battle with Germany, hoping victory might save France. After learning the fleet had been defeated, they faced the prospect of ending the war as German forces advanced south.

• President Poincaré asked Secretary Victor Gagnour about France’s chances, and Gagnour warned that the Combined Fleet was unlikely to match the German Navy’s skill and quality.
• A naval officer reported that the Combined Fleet had been defeated, with all its Capital Ships sunk or captured and little damage inflicted on Germany.
• Prime Minister René Viviani told President Poincaré that the fleet’s defeat had destroyed France’s last hope.
• Foreign Minister Théophile Delcassé urged the Cabinet to end the war and limit further losses.
• Minister of War Alexander Millerand warned that the French Army could not stop the German advance and that Toulouse might soon be reached.

With France defeated, President Poincaré and his government decided to seek peace with Germany before the homeland was occupied. They prepared to negotiate over colonies, territory, and reparations, appointing Théophile Viviani as France’s plenipotentiary.

• President Poincaré and Prime Minister René Viviani agreed that France had to seek peace before defeat became surrender.
• Minister Théophile Delcassé and Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Ribert warned that Germany would demand colonies, French territory, and heavy reparations.
• René Viviani argued that France should give up its colonies if necessary to preserve the homeland, while Poincaré insisted they defend French territory and minimize reparations.
• The French government appointed Foreign Minister Théophile Viviani as plenipotentiary for peace negotiations with Germany.

King Vittorio Emanuele III and Prime Minister Antonio Salandra anxiously awaited news of the naval battle against Germany, which Italy hoped to win or use to secure a dignified peace. Vittorio regretted Italy’s decision to join the Allied Powers, but Salandra reassured him that the choice had seemed beneficial at the time.

• Vittorio Emanuele III prayed for the Combined Fleet to defeat the German Navy and regretted that he could not pray at the Vatican.
• Vittorio blamed former Prime Minister Giovanni Giolitti for Italy’s decision to leave the Allied Powers, overlooking his own responsibility.
• Antonio Salandra told Vittorio that Francesco was waiting at the Naval Ministry and would report as soon as news arrived.
• Vittorio asked whether Italy could defeat Germany, and Salandra said the outcome was uncertain but victory was possible if fortune favored them.
• Salandra defended Italy’s decision by saying Britain, France, and Russia had seemed certain to defeat Germany, and Vittorio accepted that explanation.

After the Combined Fleet suffered a crushing defeat, Francesco reported the news to King Vittorio Emanuele III and Prime Minister Antonio Salandra. They decided to seek peace with Germany and appointed Paul Borselli to negotiate, knowing Italy might have to pay a heavy price to survive.

• Francesco received General Paul's telegram confirming the Combined Fleet's defeat by the German Navy.
• Francesco rushed to the royal palace and told Vittorio Emanuele III and Antonio Salandra that the navy had been crushed.
• Antonio Salandra urged the King to focus on preserving the Kingdom of Italy rather than regretting their defeat.
• Vittorio Emanuele III summoned Foreign Minister Paul Borselli and appointed him to lead peace negotiations with Germany.
• Paul Borselli warned that Germany would demand a tremendous price, and the King and Prime Minister accepted that Italy might have to make major concessions.

After France and Italy sought peace following Germany’s naval victory, Oscar ordered negotiations in Berlin and set out to extract sweeping reparations, territory, colonies, and military restrictions from France. Bülow and Wachth accepted his plan as Germany prepared to negotiate from its position of strength.

• Wacht reported that the French and Italian ambassadors had proposed peace talks with Germany after the naval defeat.
• Oscar agreed to receive French and Italian representatives in Berlin and said the defeated nations should pay for Germany’s wartime costs.
• Wachth asked about Germany’s bottom line, and Oscar demanded at least fifty billion Marks from France, all its overseas colonies, territory north of the Loire, and strict limits on its armed forces.
• Bülow questioned whether France would accept terms that could cost it its country, but Oscar argued that France would submit or face occupation and partition.
• Bülow and Wachth agreed to try Oscar’s proposed terms, trusting Germany’s advantage in the negotiations.

Oscar set Germany’s priorities for peace negotiations with France and Italy while planning to limit the Austro-Hungarian Empire’s gains and secure German interests in the Mediterranean. He left Sicily and Corsica as nonnegotiable demands, backed by the threat of military occupation.

• Oscar ordered that peace talks with France come first and talks with Italy wait until Austro-Hungarian representatives arrived.
• Wachth asked whether Germany should support Austro-Hungarian claims to former Italian territories, and Oscar and Bülow said Germany must prevent its ally from gaining too much.
• Oscar demanded that Italy pay at least twenty billion marks in reparations, transfer its overseas colonies, and compensate Germany for losses involving Libyan oil fields.
• Oscar sought Sicily and Corsica as German Mediterranean bases, said Sardinia could be abandoned, and threatened to occupy the islands if Italy refused.

At Schönbrunn Palace, Franz Joseph I and his ministers discussed the German Navy’s victory and the Austro-Hungarian Empire’s interests in the coming peace negotiations. Germany invited the Empire to send a delegation to peace talks with Italy in Berlin, angering Crown Prince Karl.

• Admiral Anton Haus reported that Germany had crushed the British, French, and Italian Combined Fleet, and Franz Joseph I ordered congratulations to Wilhelm III.
• Crown Prince Karl warned that German naval power threatened the Empire and urged greater investment in its navy; Franz Joseph I agreed resources should be shifted toward it.
• Mario Weber and Crown Prince Karl discussed protecting Austro-Hungarian gains in the peace settlements, while Franz Joseph I cautioned against antagonizing Germany.
• Baron von Berchtold announced that Italy had requested peace talks and Germany had invited an Austro-Hungarian delegation to Berlin.
• Crown Prince Karl angrily objected that Germany had chosen Berlin without consulting the Austro-Hungarian Empire.

Crown Prince Karl resented Germany for excluding the Austro-Hungarian Empire from peace talks, but Franz Joseph I sent him to Berlin to build ties with Wilhelm III rather than confront Germany. As the French and Italian delegations prepared to negotiate, their foreign ministers secretly met to consider joining forces against German demands.

• Crown Prince Karl complained that Italy had negotiated with Germany without involving the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and Franz Joseph I warned him against challenging Germany's superior strength.
• Franz Joseph I ordered Karl and Baron von Berchtold to travel to Berlin and prioritize establishing a good relationship with Wilhelm III.
• Karl learned that French representatives had also gone to Berlin and angrily accused Germany of keeping the spoils for itself.
• German Foreign Minister von Kiderlen-Wachth hosted a banquet for the French and Italian delegations before peace talks began.
• Théophile Delcassé and Paul Borselli met secretly and discussed forming an offensive and defensive alliance to reduce Germany's demands.

Théophile Delcassé and Paul Borselli agreed that France and Italy should negotiate firmly with Germany, despite having little leverage after their defeat. Germany began peace talks with France first on May 24, 1915, leaving Italy to negotiate later.

• Paul Borselli blamed Théophile Delcassé for persuading Italy to join the Allied Powers, while Delcassé rejected responsibility for Italy’s defeat.
• Théophile Delcassé proposed that France and Italy coordinate to reduce the terms Germany imposed on them, and Paul Borselli agreed to try.
• Germany insisted on negotiating with France before Italy and told both delegations they could leave if they objected.
• France and Italy accepted Germany’s arrangement because they could not risk renewed fighting.
• Von Kiderlen-Wächter opened peace talks with the French delegation at the German Foreign Ministry on May 24, 1915.