Recaps

Wachth and Théophile Delcassé began peace negotiations after France’s defeat, but Wachth imposed a three-day deadline and demanded enormous reparations. Delcassé offered twenty billion Marks after rejecting the demand for one hundred billion, leaving the negotiations at an impasse.

• Théophile Delcassé called for peace, and Wachth agreed that Germany did not want the war to continue.
• Wachth gave the negotiations three days to reach an agreement before he would declare them broken down.
• Wachth said France must compensate Germany for the war and demanded one hundred billion Marks.
• Théophile Delcassé protested that France could not afford the sum and offered twenty billion Marks instead.

Wachth negotiated Germany’s harsh peace terms with Théophile Delcassé, settling France’s reparations at 55 billion marks and demanding all French colonies. France agreed to transfer its colonies, and Wachth then demanded French territory north of the Loire River and Corsica.

• Wachth demanded 100 billion marks in reparations, and Théophile Delcassé argued that France should not pay five times what Russia had paid.
• Wachth lowered Germany’s demand, and after prolonged haggling, Wachth and Théophile Delcassé settled on 55 billion marks.
• Wachth warned that Germany would continue its offensive if France rejected the reparations terms.
• Wachth demanded that France transfer all its overseas colonies to Germany, and Théophile Delcassé agreed after failing to retain the African colonies.
• Wachth demanded that France cede all territory north of the Loire River and Corsica to Germany.

Théophile Delcassé rejected Germany’s demands for reparations, colonies, and half of France’s territory, including Paris, while von Giedlen Wachth threatened to destroy France if it refused. Delcassé left without authority to accept the terms, but admitted he would report them to his government as Germany prepared to resume its offensive.

• Théophile Delcassé protested that Germany’s demands would strip France of its most prosperous regions and reduce it to a powerless nation.
• Wachth argued that Germany could conquer France outright and threatened to seize its wealth and colonies by force if negotiations failed.
• Théophile Delcassé condemned Wachth’s threats to kill French resisters, but firmly refused to accept the terms.
• Wachth declared negotiations broken down and said the Imperial Army would continue its offensive until France was destroyed.
• Théophile Delcassé said he lacked authority to accept Germany’s terms and would report them to his government, though he expected it to refuse.

Wachth presented Germany’s final terms to Théophile Delcassé, including strict limits on France’s military and a German occupation until the conditions were fulfilled. Delcassé reported the demands to France, leaving the government to choose between accepting them and facing renewed war.

• Wachth demanded that France limit its armed forces and surrender its ability to build or possess major weapons.
• Théophile Delcassé said he would report Germany’s conditions to his government rather than accept them himself.
• Wachth added that Germany would station one hundred thousand troops in France until the terms were carried out.
• After leaving the Foreign Ministry, Théophile Delcassé sent a Telegram home describing the demands and Germany’s threat to resume its offensive.
• Paul Borselli sought details of the negotiations, but Théophile Delcassé refused to tell him.

President Poincaré and the French Cabinet debated Germany’s harsh peace terms after France’s defeat. As the ministers confronted demands for reparations, colonies, and territory, René Viviani warned that rejection could bring continued invasion and mass slaughter.

• President Poincaré announced that Germany demanded fifty-five billion Marks in reparations, after Théophile Delcassé had negotiated the original demand down from one hundred billion.
• Alexander Ribot said France could not afford the reparations, while René Viviani explained that Germany knew about France’s overseas assets.
• President Poincaré revealed Germany’s demand for all French overseas colonies, provoking outrage from the Minister of Colonies and other ministers.
• President Poincaré announced that Germany also demanded the territory north of the Loire River, including Paris, and Corsica.
• René Viviani warned that Germany would pursue France into its colonies and might massacre millions if France rejected the terms, leaving the Cabinet silent with fear.

The French government debated whether to accept Germany’s demands, which included ceding the territory north of the Loire and severely restricting France’s military. When negotiations failed, Germany resumed its offensive and rapidly broke through French defenses, increasing pressure on the ministers to submit.

• Alexander Ribot told President Poincaré and Prime Minister René Viviani that France had to accept Germany’s terms or continue resisting at the risk of destruction.
• President Poincaré outlined Germany’s military restrictions and its demand to station 100,000 troops in France.
• French ministers argued over whether to accept the terms, as Germany gave France three days to decide.
• On May 27, Germany declared negotiations broken down and launched a massive offensive with more than a million troops.
• German forces breached French fortifications after half a day, and many French soldiers surrendered or fled.
• As Germany advanced, more French Cabinet Ministers shifted toward accepting the terms.

With French forces defeated and escape routes cut off, President Poincaré and Prime Minister René Viviani agreed to accept Germany’s terms. Théophile Delcassé signed the Treaty of Berlin, ending the war and leaving France severely reduced and under German occupation until it fulfilled the treaty.

• President Poincaré and Prime Minister René Viviani agreed to surrender after officials warned that France had nowhere left to retreat.
• Théophile Delcassé received the French government’s order to accept Germany’s terms and went to meet von Kiderlen-Wachth.
• Théophile Delcassé accepted Germany’s conditions, and the German Foreign Ministry drafted the peace treaty.
• Théophile Delcassé and von Kiderlen-Wachth signed the Treaty of Berlin, requiring France to pay reparations, surrender its colonies and northern territory, and limit its armed forces.
• The treaty ended the war, halted Germany’s offensive, and left 100,000 German troops stationed in France until France fulfilled its obligations.

After Germany forced France to sign a harsh peace treaty, Oscar decided how to use the reparations and prepared for negotiations with Italy and Austria-Hungary. Crown Prince Karl learned the treaty’s terms and grew furious and jealous over Germany’s gains.

• Wachth reported that France had accepted Germany’s conditions and signed the peace treaty, including fifty-five billion marks in reparations.
• Oscar directed that the reparations repay war debts, support preparations for an amphibious operation against Britain, and fund infrastructure in Germany’s eastern territories.
• Oscar arranged a palace banquet for the Austro-Hungarian delegation as officials discussed the allies’ dissatisfaction and Germany’s growing distrust of them.
• Jugenbrugg told Crown Prince Karl that France would pay reparations, surrender its colonies and territory, and accept strict military limits.
• Crown Prince Karl became jealous as he considered the wealth and power Germany stood to gain from France.

Crown Prince Karl complained that Germany had made a separate peace with France and excluded the Austro-Hungarian Empire from the spoils, then challenged Emperor Oscar about the treaty. Oscar argued that France had only been the Empire’s enemy in name because it had sent no troops against France.

• Crown Prince Karl condemned France for accepting Germany’s harsh peace terms and accused Germany of betraying its alliance with the Austro-Hungarian Empire.
• Baron von Berchtold warned Crown Prince Karl not to anger Germany and discussed with Ambassador Juluch how Germany viewed the Empire as a burden in the war.
• Emperor Oscar hosted the Austro-Hungarian delegation at a banquet and later accompanied Crown Prince Karl on a walk through the palace gardens.
• Crown Prince Karl confronted Oscar over Germany’s separate peace treaty with France, and Oscar replied that the Austro-Hungarian Empire had not actually fought France.

Oscar rejected Crown Prince Karl’s attempt to claim French reparations and heard the Austro-Hungarian Empire’s demands for peace with Italy. He objected to Karl’s sweeping claims but left negotiations unresolved, while intending to keep Libya under German control.

• Oscar told Crown Prince Karl that the Austro-Hungarian Empire could negotiate with France on its own for reparations.
• Crown Prince Karl dropped the demand for French reparations and asked Germany to support the Austro-Hungarian Empire’s claims against Italy.
• Karl demanded fifty billion Krone, Venice and nearby northern regions, and all of Italy’s overseas colonies.
• Oscar judged the demands too harsh, calculated that Italy could not afford them, and resolved not to give Libya to the Austro-Hungarian Empire.
• Karl threatened to invade Italy and destroy it completely if it refused his terms.

Oscar rejected Crown Prince Karl’s demands for German support in taking Libya and other Italian territory, exposing a clash between Germany’s and the Austro-Hungarian Empire’s interests. He ordered Germany to protect its own gains while limiting both Italy’s defeat and the Austro-Hungarian Empire’s rewards, leaving the alliance strained.

• Oscar refused to give Libya to the Austro-Hungarian Empire, offering Italian East Africa instead.
• Crown Prince Karl left the meeting furious and ordered the Austro-Hungarian delegation back to its embassy.
• Oscar told Prime Minister Bülow and Foreign Minister Wachth that the Austro-Hungarian Empire’s demands for reparations, territory, and colonies were excessive.
• Oscar directed Wachth to secure Germany’s interests while giving the Austro-Hungarian Empire only limited support in pressuring Italy.
• Bülow warned that the dispute could damage the alliance, and Oscar said nations had only eternal interests, not eternal allies.

Crown Prince Karl demanded enormous reparations and territorial concessions from Italy, rejecting Baron von Berchtold’s warnings and Germany’s refusal to support his claims. At peace negotiations, Karl and German Foreign Minister Wachth threatened Italy with invasion if it could not meet their demands.

• Crown Prince Karl told Baron von Berchtold he had demanded fifty billion Krone, Venice and the territory east of it, and all of Italy’s colonies.
• Baron von Berchtold urged Karl to reduce his demands, but Karl insisted they would bring greater benefits to the Empire.
• Paul Borselli humbly asked Germany and the Austro-Hungarian Empire to forgive Italy’s betrayal and spare it excessively harsh terms.
• Karl and Wachth said Italy had to pay for betraying the alliance, and Karl threatened to have their armies flatten Rome if Italy could not meet their demands.

Germany and the Austro-Hungarian Empire demanded enormous reparations, territory, colonies, and military restrictions from Italy, but Paul Borselli refused terms he considered equivalent to national ruin. The negotiations stalled, and Crown Prince Karl asked whether Italy would at least accept Germany’s demands.

• Wachth presented Germany’s demands, including twenty billion Mark in reparations, Sicily and Sardinia, Libya, military limits, and a temporary German occupation.
• Paul Borselli protested that Germany’s terms were too harsh, while Crown Prince Karl bristled at the Germans for speaking first.
• Crown Prince Karl demanded fifty billion Krone, Venice and the lands east of it, and Italy’s colonies for the Austro-Hungarian Empire, along with the same military restrictions Germany had imposed.
• Paul Borselli rejected the Austro-Hungarian terms and said Italy would rather fight than accept national ruin, bringing the negotiations to a deadlock.
• Crown Prince Karl urged Wachth to take action against Italy and asked Paul Borselli whether Italy would accept Germany’s terms.

At the peace talks, Germany and Austria-Hungary made competing harsh demands of Italy, and the negotiations ended without agreement. Vittorio Emanuele III and Antonio Salandra decided Italy would have to accept Germany’s terms while seeking to exploit disagreements between the two powers to reduce the cost.

• Paul Borselli told von Kiderlen-Wachth that Italy could not bear Germany’s terms unless they were lowered, but Wachth refused to change them.
• Crown Prince Karl accused Germany of betraying the alliance, while Wachth said Germany would not remain stalled indefinitely by Austria-Hungary’s inability to reach a deal with Italy.
• The talks ended without agreement, and Borselli reported both countries’ demands to Rome.
• Vittorio Emanuele III and Antonio Salandra agreed that Italy could not refuse Germany’s terms, though accepting all of Austria-Hungary’s demands would be disastrous.
• Salandra pointed to conflicting demands over Italy’s colonies as evidence of a rift between Germany and Austria-Hungary, and Vittorio Emanuele III resolved to use it to minimize Italy’s losses.

Paul Borselli secretly met German Foreign Minister Wachth to negotiate Italy’s peace terms and seek Germany’s help against Austro-Hungary. Wachth agreed to compromise over Sardinia and hinted at covert military support, but did not promise to pressure Austro-Hungary.

• Paul Borselli received a telegram from Rome and decided to meet Wachth late at night.
• Paul Borselli offered Italy’s acceptance of most German terms, ten billion Mark in reparations, and Sicily, while asking to retain Sardinia.
• Wachth agreed that Germany would not demand Sardinia but insisted that Italy pay twenty billion Mark, possibly over several years and with royal treasures as collateral.
• Paul Borselli asked what Italy should do about Austro-Hungary’s harsh terms and threat of force, and Wachth advised resisting rather than accepting them.
• Wachth offered to secretly provide Italy with weapons and equipment, and Paul Borselli asked Germany to pressure Austro-Hungary to ease its demands.

Wachth and Paul Borselli negotiated Germany’s support for Italy’s peace terms with the Austro-Hungarian Empire, agreeing to reparations and territorial and colonial concessions. The meeting ended with Germany securing its own gains while preparing to press its ally to accept the proposal.

• Wachth refused to use Germany’s strength to pressure the Austro-Hungarian Empire directly, but asked how much Italy could pay in reparations.
• Paul Borselli offered 5 billion Kronen, and Wachth raised the proposal to 5 billion Marks.
• Wachth told Paul Borselli that Italy should cede Venice and the lands eastward to the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and Paul agreed.
• Wachth arranged for Libya to go to Germany and Italian East Africa to the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and Paul accepted the terms.
• Paul Borselli left Wachth’s residence pleased with Germany’s support, while Wachth celebrated Germany’s reparations, territories, and access to Libyan oil.

German Emperor Oscar’s government finalized peace terms with Italy and used them as a proposed settlement between Italy and the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Germany left the Austro-Hungarian delegation stunned by signing its own treaty with Italy, while Oscar considered how a future conflict might weaken the dual monarchy.

• Foreign Minister von Kiderlen-Wachth told Oscar that he and Italian Foreign Minister Paul Borselli had agreed on terms, and Oscar approved the treaty’s expected gains for Germany.
• Wachth outlined Italy’s proposed reparations and territorial concessions to the Austro-Hungarian Empire, while Oscar instructed his ministers to use the terms as a blueprint and support Italy if Austria-Hungary refused.
• Oscar privately anticipated that Crown Prince Karl’s rule could give Germany an opportunity to break apart the Austro-Hungarian Empire.
• At the afternoon talks, Wachth announced that Germany and Italy had reached an agreement, surprising Crown Prince Karl and the Austro-Hungarian delegation.
• Wachth and Paul Borselli signed the German-Italian Peace Treaty, which required Italy to pay Germany twenty billion Marks, cede Sicily and Libya, limit its armed forces, and host German troops until the treaty was fulfilled.

Crown Prince Karl confronted Wachth after Germany signed a separate peace treaty with Italy, then tried to force Paul Borselli to accept Austro-Hungarian terms. The Italians refused, leaving the Austro-Hungarian delegation unable to secure its demands or credibly threaten war.

• Crown Prince Karl accused Wachth of violating the alliance treaty by signing peace with Italy separately, and Wachth defended Germany's decision.
• Baron von Berchtold protested Germany's betrayal, but Wachth insisted the separate agreement had not harmed Austro-Hungarian interests.
• Crown Prince Karl threatened to complain to the German Emperor, but Wachth said the Emperor had already left Berlin for France.
• Crown Prince Karl demanded that Paul Borselli accept Austro-Hungarian terms, but Borselli refused and said Italy would rather fight than accept them.
• Crown Prince Karl and Baron von Berchtold recognized that threatening war was risky, and Karl blamed Germany for emboldening Italy.

Wachth mediated negotiations between the Austro-Hungarian Empire and the Kingdom of Italy, pressing both sides toward a settlement to prevent another war. Italy agreed to pay fifty billion Mark and cede Venice, while the remaining terms awaited approval by the governments.

• Wachth urged the Austro-Hungarian Empire and Italy to settle their dispute peacefully, and Paul Borselli said Italy would pay reparations but rejected the harsh terms.
• Paul Borselli raised Italy’s offer from one billion Mark to twenty billion Mark, but Crown Prince Karl refused both amounts.
• Wachth proposed fifty billion Mark in reparations, which Paul Borselli accepted; Baron von Berchtold said he would submit the offer to his government.
• Paul Borselli agreed that Italy would cede Venice and the territory east of it to the Austro-Hungarian Empire.
• Crown Prince Karl proposed trading Libya for Italian East Africa, but Wachth refused to give up Libya; Baron von Berchtold said his government would decide whether to accept Italian East Africa.

Crown Prince Karl and Baron von Berchtold learned that Germany was backing Italy in the peace negotiations, leaving the Austro-Hungarian Empire unable to force better terms. They referred the decision to Emperor Franz Joseph I, who summoned his ministers in Vienna to decide how the Empire should respond.

• Crown Prince Karl denounced Germany for siding with Italy and blocking the Austro-Hungarian Empire from gaining more from the negotiations.
• Baron von Berchtold warned that Germany no longer considered the Empire a useful ally and that the Empire could not risk using force against Italy.
• Crown Prince Karl rejected the proposed peace terms, but Baron von Berchtold said they had to refer the matter to Emperor Franz Joseph I.
• Crown Prince Karl agreed to report the negotiations to Vienna and inwardly vowed to make Germany pay when he became emperor.
• Emperor Franz Joseph I summoned Prime Minister Mario Weber, Duke Kaspar, Duke Andrassy, Count István von Tisza, Baron Marshal von Heitzenforf, and other ministers to discuss Germany's support for Italy.

Franz Joseph I and his ministers debated Germany’s secret peace deals with France and Italy and concluded that the Austro-Hungarian Empire could not risk fighting Germany. He ordered the Crown Prince to accept German mediation and make peace with Italy, leaving the ministers wary of their former ally.

• Mario Weber, Duke Andrassy, and Duke Kaspar condemned Germany for excluding the Empire from peace talks and helping Italy.
• Franz Joseph I asked whether the Empire could defeat Italy, and Duke Kaspar and Baron Marshal von Heitzenforf warned that German intervention could make the war disastrous.
• Franz Joseph I accepted that the Empire had to yield to German pressure, despite its ministers’ anger and hopes for greater reparations.
• Mario Weber argued that five billion Mark in Italian reparations was still a substantial sum.
• Franz Joseph I ordered Mario Weber to tell the Crown Prince to accept German mediation and sign peace with Italy.
• Duke Kaspar warned that the Empire needed to guard against Germany, and Franz Joseph I agreed.

Franz Joseph I and his ministers recognized that Germany’s growing dominance threatened the Austro-Hungarian Empire and widened the rift between the allies. Austria-Hungary accepted Italy’s peace terms, and Crown Prince Karl left Berlin vowing revenge against Germany.

• Franz Joseph I urged the Austro-Hungarian Empire to strengthen its military while maintaining cooperation with Germany, and his ministers discussed Germany’s power and Crown Prince Karl’s shortcomings.
• Baron Marshal von Heitzenforf argued that Emperor Wilhelm III’s leadership made Germany impossible to challenge, and Franz Joseph I agreed.
• Crown Prince Karl and Baron von Berchtold followed orders from home and abandoned their hard-line position in peace negotiations with Italy.
• The Austro-Hungarian delegation accepted Italy’s offer of six billion Mark in war indemnities, and the two countries signed a treaty transferring Venice, nearby eastern territories, and Italian East Africa to Austria-Hungary.
• Crown Prince Karl and the Austro-Hungarian delegation skipped the banquet and departed Berlin by train, as Karl vowed to make Germany pay for its humiliation.

Oscar and the German commanders inspected preparations for an invasion of Britain across the Dover Strait. The Marine Corps and Navy were readying their forces, and supplies for the operation were expected to be prepared within three months.

• Oscar arrived in Calais and declared that Germany would invade Britain and make it a stepping stone to world hegemony.
• Falkenhayn expressed confidence that Germany's elite forces could defeat Britain's newly armed but inexperienced forces.
• Tirpitz reported that the Navy would use pre-dreadnoughts for bombardment, avoid mined waters at the Thames, and commit all five Marine Corps divisions to the landing.
• Oscar authorized the Marine Corps to take part in the campaign after securing the landing sites.
• Waldersee told Oscar that preparations and supplies for the cross-sea operation would be completed within three months.

Oscar and the Imperial commanders reviewed Germany’s plan to invade Britain, including a massive landing aimed at trapping and destroying the British Army in southeastern England. Oscar warned that Britain might keep resisting after London fell and ordered the navy to prevent the royal family and its wealth from escaping as the invasion preparations continued.

• Field Marshal Falkenhayn presented a plan to deploy four army corps, the High Seas Fleet, and the Marine Corps, totaling about 1.5 million men, against Britain.
• Falkenhayn outlined landings at Ramsgate, Folkestone, Eastbourne, and Bournemouth, with the 8th Army Corps attacking the British flank from the south.
• Oscar warned that Churchill and other Britons might continue resisting even after London fell, though Germany could establish a new government and negotiate with it.
• Oscar ordered the army to seize the British Royal Family’s hidden wealth and the navy to blockade escape routes to Canada, sinking ships and killing King George V if necessary.
• Oscar told the commanders to continue preparing for the invasion and said he hoped the fighting would end before Christmas.

Oscar ordered Germany to develop its newly acquired eastern territories while preparing for a possible future war with Russia and the Bolshevik Party. He assigned the newly formed units to suppress guerrilla forces in the east, leaving the large-scale development to begin once they were cleared.

• Oscar discussed the Austro-Hungarian delegation's dissatisfaction and said Crown Prince Karl's hostility could give Germany grounds to act against the empire in the future.
• Chancellor Bülow proposed developing Germany's newly acquired eastern territories, and Oscar agreed the work would not interfere with the coming war against Britain.
• Field Marshal Falkenhayn reported that the Bolshevik Party had nearly defeated the White Army in the Russian Civil War.
• Oscar warned that Russia and the Bolshevik Party could become a major threat and ordered Germany to prepare for a future conflict.
• Chancellor Bülow said guerrilla forces opposed German rule in the eastern territories, and Oscar assigned the newly formed units to suppress them for combat experience.