Recaps

Russia revised its war strategy after transport losses limited its forces, while Franz learned that the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies had requested French help against spreading rebellions. He ordered Austria to prepare for intervention as the risk of a French-Austrian clash over Italy grew.

• Minister of War Khramed proposed that Russia defend in the Baltic and Belarus while attacking Poland through the Austrian border to improve supply lines.
• Alexander II ordered warehouses established near Austria and directed the military to recover territory bordering it before trading for supplies.
• Foreign Minister Wessenberg told Franz that Gaboli's rebels had crossed the Strait of Messina, spread across the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, and threatened Naples.
• Franz ordered the General Staff to prepare an operational plan to prevent the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies from falling under French influence.

Napoleon III sent French forces into the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies to suppress Gaboli's rebellion and expand French influence, despite warnings about provoking Austria and other powers. When French and Austrian troops arrived in Gaeta, Francesco II found himself trapped between them and burdened with their military costs.

• Napoleon III ordered four infantry divisions under Marshal Patrice MacMahon to intervene in the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, while the French navy blockaded rebel-controlled coastlines.
• Foreign Minister Abraham warned that intervention could provoke Britain, Austria, and Spain, but Napoleon III believed France only needed to worry about Austria.
• France and Austria both dispatched intervention forces, and the French reached the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies a day before the Austrians arrived in Gaeta on February 11, 1866.
• French and Austrian officers refused to cooperate and decided to fight the rebels separately, while Francesco II struggled to navigate between the rival powers.
• The Kingdom of the Two Sicilies was made responsible for at least ten million Divine Shields in military costs, and the rivalry between France and Austria threatened to prolong the rebellion.

With the Redshirts defeated, France and Austria continued covertly clashing in the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, leaving Francesco II to fear that his country would be crushed between them. He approved Carlo Filangieri’s plan to pressure both armies and blame the Americans, while his past reforms and leniency were revealed to have helped ignite the rebellion.

• The French and Austrian armies crushed the Redshirts, while their disguised clashes produced inflated casualty reports credited to the rebels; Gaboli fled without knowing he had become an Italian hero.
• Francesco II returned to Naples as Carlo Filangieri warned that France and Austria’s escalating conflict threatened the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies.
• Francesco II said he lacked the standing to mediate because both powers denied that their armies were fighting.
• Carlo Filangieri proposed using international embarrassment to make the commanders stop and framing the Americans as instigators.
• Francesco II approved the plan on condition that the kingdom remain uninvolved.
• The chapter recounted how Francesco II’s reforms and his decision to spare rebels helped former political prisoners and local strongmen fuel the uprising.

Franz and Napoleon III both wanted to avoid war, but neither could back down from the escalating Franco-Austrian crisis in the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. Vienna decided to force Francesco II to abdicate and replace him with Luigi Maria, while Franz prepared to make France pay and keep it occupied.

• Franz judged that a Franco-Austrian war would be costly, difficult to win, and unlikely to produce lasting gains, while Napoleon III also feared the risks of fighting in Italy.
• Prime Minister Carlo Filangieri arranged for the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies to send evidence blaming Britain for stirring up the conflict, and France and Austria allowed the accusation to spread.
• Foreign Minister Wessenberg urged Vienna to halt the crisis, but Finance Minister Charles argued that Austria could not simply let France escape responsibility.
• Prime Minister Felix proposed removing Francesco II for inviting French intervention and replacing him with his half-brother Luigi Maria, Count of Trani.
• Franz approved Francesco II's abdication and said Austria would also make France pay by beginning its strategy against Napoleon III.

Austria and France held secret negotiations while Britain’s actions stirred uprisings against Russia in Central Asia and the Far East. Franz judged that the turmoil weakened Russia but would not decide the Prusso-Russian War unless Sweden entered it.

• Austria and France began secret talks in Naples on May 2, 1866, using negotiations over dividing Europe to pursue their interests and draw Napoleon III toward a risky strategy.
• British-backed rebels and Gurkha mercenaries fueled an anti-Russian uprising across Central Asia, captured Tashkent, and forced Russia to send troops from the Caucasus.
• Franz and Prime Minister Felix discussed whether British and French pressure could force the Ottoman Empire to attack Russia, while Felix noted that the Sultan Government feared another defeat.
• Foreign Minister Wessenberg reported that Japan had expelled Russian troops from Tsushima Island and that conflict had erupted between Japan’s Coastal Defense Faction and Frontier Defense Faction.
• Franz concluded that only Swedish intervention could materially help Prussia, while Wessenberg explained that Prussia would not surrender Schleswig and Holstein because doing so could cost it German support.

Alexander II confronted rising prices and shortages in Saint Petersburg, threatening government control and military enforcement unless supplies stabilized. He also weighed concessions to Austria and Sweden to protect Russia’s position in the war, leaving the risks of a unified Nordic power unresolved.

• Alexander II ordered Mikhail to control prices and secure supplies in Saint Petersburg, warning that the government would intervene if conditions did not improve.
• Mikhail blamed muddy roads for supply disruptions, but Alexander II threatened unified distribution and said the Fourth Division and Seventh Division would enforce it if prices remained high.
• Clarence Ivanov reported secret talks between Austria and France and said their outcome could affect Russia’s war against Prussia.
• Alexander II instructed Clarence Ivanov to contact Austria and offer concessions, including limiting Russia’s claims in Prussia to Poland.
• Clarence Ivanov proposed supporting Karl XV’s plan to unite the Nordic countries so Sweden would enter the Prusso-Danish War, but Alexander II worried that a united Nordic power might threaten Russia’s northern frontier.

The British government sought to exploit Russia’s weakness while debating how to answer France and Austria’s naval buildup. The chapter ended with John Russell backing a parliamentary motion for an additional ten million pounds in shipbuilding funds.

• Foreign Secretary Reslin reported that Russia would permit the three Nordic countries to unify, and John Russell ordered Britain to intensify aid to Prussia and bring the Ottoman Empire and the Far East into the conflict.
• John Russell hoped Sweden might turn against Russia, but Reslin explained that Sweden was unlikely to join Prussia while Denmark and Russia were allies.
• First Lord of the Admiralty Edward requested ten million pounds to preserve Britain’s naval advantage after France increased its shipbuilding budget and Austria was expected to match much of it.
• Finance Minister Agawar refused to provide the extra funds without Parliament’s approval, and Edward argued that Britain’s naval supremacy was at stake.
• John Russell told the Admiralty to submit a funding motion to Parliament the following Monday and prepare to defend it.

France and the New Holy Roman Empire signed the Treaty of '66, dividing influence and territories while leaving the Rhineland unresolved. Franz defended Austria’s purchase of the French Balkans and proposed that Russia pay dearly or trade territory for access to the Mediterranean.

• Wessenberg and Abraham signed a ten-year alliance treaty that recognized spheres of influence, transferred Italian suzerainty to France, sold the French Balkans and overlapping West African claims to Austria, and divided African claims.
• Franz assessed the treaty’s compromises, Africa’s largely nominal partition, and the risks of France annexing Italian states, while considering a future Italian federation as a path to union with France.
• Prime Minister Felix warned Franz that buying the French Balkans violated the Russo-Austrian Secret Treaty and could worsen relations with Russia, particularly over the Dardanelles.
• Franz told Felix that Russia could buy the Balkans at ten times the price or offer a territorial exchange, and instructed the Foreign Ministry to discuss terms while excluding Poland.

France and Austria signed a public agreement transferring sovereignty over Italian, Balkan, and African territories, while keeping their broader partitioning plans secret. The slogan “win-win cooperation” spread through the press as Austria prepared to withdraw its troops from Italy, and Napoleon III faced growing pressure from French public opinion and pro-British officials.

• France and Austria signed an agreement covering sovereignty transfers in Italy, the Balkans, and certain African colonies.
• Conrad-Hollmann wrote an editorial praising the deal as “win-win cooperation,” and the Vienna Daily selected it for publication.
• The slogan caught on in Vienna and became an official propaganda line as Franco-Austrian relations entered a honeymoon period.
• Franz decided Austria could withdraw its troops from Italy and leave the remaining guerrillas to France.
• French citizens celebrated the deal as a step toward Mediterranean dominance, while officials worried it would provoke Britain and Napoleon III considered purging pro-British figures.

The British Cabinet debated France and Austria’s growing power and decided to seize Tunisia while trying to break apart the Russo-Austrian alliance. In Saint Petersburg, Alexander II learned Austria’s steep terms for a Balkan land deal and chose to keep negotiating rather than rush into the Mediterranean.

• John Russell warned that France and Austria’s expansion threatened Britain’s influence and urged an end to the Prusso-Russian War.
• Reslin argued that Britain should exploit the rivalry between France and Austria, while Agawar questioned what to do if they had already allied.
• The Cabinet rejected Reslin’s approach and decided to seize Tunisia to secure the Strait of Tunisia for the Royal Navy.
• Reslin set out to break apart the Russo-Austrian alliance, fearing that Austria might help Russia threaten British India.
• Clarence Ivanov told Alexander II that Austria demanded 200 million Divine Shield or a five-to-one land exchange for its Balkan territory.
• Alexander II ordered Clarence Ivanov to continue bargaining with Austria and said Russia could wait three to five years.

The Austrian African Colony’s delegation won support for colonial localization by promising not to export grain to Europe, and the Imperial Parliament unanimously passed the bill. Franz praised the concession in an essay that became a popular slogan, while the work of defining localization’s requirements remained ahead.

• At Parklen Estate, Baron Fikeni proposed promising that the Austrian African Colony would not export grain to Europe, and Count Daniel agreed despite concerns about future grain profits.
• On September 1, 1866, the colony’s representatives made the grain-export commitment before the Imperial Parliament.
• The Imperial Parliament unanimously passed the African localization bill and made the commitment a legal prerequisite for localization.
• Franz wrote “Forbearance for the Nation” praising the delegation’s concession, and the phrase spread across Europe as a propaganda slogan.

Franz’s colonial-localization policy established strict economic, demographic, and cultural conditions, while William I and his advisers in Berlin debated whether Austria’s new policy created an opening or a trap for Prussia. Prussia chose to focus on ending the war with Russia and provoking an uprising before negotiating with the Tsarist Government.

• Franz’s government set localization requirements and safeguards against wealthy landowners faking prosperity to gain vast aristocratic fiefs.
• The chapter explained that France’s limited population and weak assimilation system hindered its efforts to localize African colonies.
• William I asked Prime Minister Frank what Vienna intended after the Imperial Parliament passed colonial localization.
• Frank, Moltke, Roon, and McKet warned that Prussia could not safely move against the Comedy Empire while the Prusso-Russian War continued and Austria might be seeking a pretext for war.
• William I ordered the government to send the revolutionaries back to Russia, defeat the Russian army, and negotiate once uprisings spread across Russia.

Franz weighed the future of the Russo-Austrian Alliance while Austria helped usher in the Second Industrial Revolution through new electrical, telegraph, and explosive technologies. The chapter ended with Austria poised to expand its industry as major inventions began reshaping communications and warfare.

• Franz received colonial representatives after more than a dozen African cities applied for localization, and the Vienna Government agreed to let qualified colonial cores localize first.
• Britain offered to mediate the Prusso-Russian War after seeking closer ties with Russia, but Franz chose not to interfere with the risk that the Russo-Austrian Alliance might weaken.
• Franz planned to install streetlights throughout Vienna after Siemens invented a high-power generator, making industrial electricity practical.
• The transatlantic telegraph cable was completed, and Franz ordered submarine cables linking Africa with Central America and New Bavaria.
• Alfred Nobel developed nitroglycerin explosives in cooperation with Austrian arms factories, while Franz kept the invention secret until after the Prusso-Russian War.

Revolutionaries prepared to launch an uprising in Moscow while Russia remained tied down by wars on several fronts. Franz learned that the Ottomans had mobilized to attack Constantinople and decided to let them test their reforms, leaving the empire’s fate in doubt.

• Mattei-Torsky and August prepared a Moscow uprising with 180 Austrian rifles, while British support was routed through Prussia and the rebels intended to implicate Austria.
• British-Russian peace talks deadlocked over the Baltic blockade as the Prussian army retreated through Poland and Russian forces advanced farther from their home base.
• Wessenberg informed Franz that the Far East War had begun, adding another front that Russia would struggle to reinforce.
• Wessenberg reported that the Ottoman Empire had mobilized 300,000 troops to attack Constantinople rather than the Caucasus.
• Franz approved the Ottoman attack as a test of its reforms and warned that the empire’s time would come if it performed poorly.

The Ottoman Empire declared war on Russia, stretching the Tsarist Government’s already overburdened forces and worsening its financial crisis. As Austria profited from wartime trade, Russia raised tariffs on Austrian imports, ending the countries’ period of close relations and setting up costly supply problems.

• On October 7, 1866, the Sultan Government demanded Constantinople from Russia, and the Russian envoy answered the ultimatum by declaring war.
• Alexander II assessed Russia’s overstretched armies and learned from Finance Minister Kristanval that revenue could fall to 150 million Rubles this year and 120 million next year.
• Austria benefited from the blockade of the Bosphorus by monopolizing trade with Russia and gaining a larger share of the agricultural market.
• Franz learned from Foreign Minister Wessenberg that Russia planned to raise tariffs, and he decided Austria should raise its export prices.
• The Tsarist Government’s tariff increase drove its officials toward domestic suppliers, ending the Russo-Austrian honeymoon and creating the prospect of costly purchases.

Nicholas Cage ordered Randell Clothing Factory to fill military uniforms with straw and other substitutes, while Russian suppliers and officials flooded the army with defective goods. Franz encouraged the corruption and gathered evidence as the Eighth Division struggled to make use of its supplies, leaving the Russian military supply scandal poised to erupt.

• Nicholas Cage told Adil to increase the straw in the padded uniforms so the factory could complete its military order with scarce materials.
• Colonel Gerald ordered an inspection of the Eighth Division’s supplies and found straw-filled clothes, defective weapons and ammunition, and spoiled food.
• Gerald calculated that the division might scrape through winter by relying on usable goods, its depleted ranks, and possible battlefield spoils.
• Alexander II’s political signals and tariff increases encouraged Russian bureaucrats and capitalists to replace Austrian supplies with cheaper, inferior domestic products.
• Franz removed Austrian oversight, let Russian-made counterfeit goods pass as Austrian military supplies, and gathered evidence to expose the scheme.

The British Government exploited the worsening Russo-Austrian relationship to weaken Russia, while Russian revolutionary leader Matvei Torsky prepared an uprising in Moscow. On December 12, 1866, the revolutionary parties launched the Double Twelfth Uprising under the slogan “Purge the Sovereign's Side,” calling for corrupt ministers to be executed and power restored to the tsar.

• Foreign Secretary Reslin reported that peace negotiations had failed and that Russia's enemies remained determined to fight.
• Prime Minister John Russell and Finance Minister Agawar discussed how strained Russo-Austrian relations and Russia's financial troubles could bring down the alliance.
• Matvei Torsky organized strikes and tax resistance among Russian workers and peasants while resisting Prussian demands to cut Moscow's railway.
• Matvei Torsky reluctantly accepted the slogan “Purge the Sovereign's Side” after revolutionary allies insisted on retaining the tsar.
• Matvei Torsky led Russian revolutionary parties in launching the Double Twelfth Uprising in Moscow on December 12, 1866.

Alexander II faced mounting pressure to suppress the Moscow rebellion as Russia’s finances and supply lines faltered, and he reluctantly sought Austria’s support. A Prussian winter offensive then exposed the Russian army’s disastrous shortages and drove more than a hundred thousand soldiers into captivity, leaving the front collapsing.

• Mikhail urged Alexander II to suppress the rebellion, while Khramed warned that the Polish and Central Asian fronts depended on supplies through Moscow.
• Kristanval reported that inflation and rising war costs threatened bankruptcy, and Clarence-Ivanov explained that Austria had raised prices in response to Russia’s tariff increase.
• Alexander II ordered negotiations with Austria to restore the previous trade treaty’s tariff terms and secure political support.
• On January 2, 1867, Prussia launched a winter offensive that shattered Russian defenses as soldiers lacked proper winter clothing and food.
• More than a hundred thousand Russian soldiers were captured, while others surrendered for better rations and the Prussian army expanded its gains.

After the winter campaign crippled Russia and devastated Prussia, Alexander II and William I both accepted that peace negotiations were necessary. Austria offered to mediate, while Prussia debated its territorial ambitions and whether to honor its promise to cede Silesia.

• Alexander II assessed Russia's military and political crisis and ordered the Foreign Ministry to invite Austria, the United Kingdom, and France to mediate.
• Franz learned that Russian losses exceeded three hundred thousand and directed Austria to mediate, warn Prussia against excessive demands, and remind it of its promise.
• William I considered Austria's diplomatic note as Prussia struggled with heavy casualties and economic devastation, and Moltke advised securing their gains through negotiations.
• Frank warned that Prussia's plans to acquire Poland and Silesia could provoke opposition from the Polish Provisional Government and the great powers.
• Roon argued that Prussia should postpone annexing Poland and resist ceding Silesia to Austria, and William I decided to delay the Silesia issue rather than surrender territory.

As the belligerents prepared to negotiate in London, Franz and his ministers considered how British plans and the Prusso-Russian War’s outcome would reshape Europe. Franz accepted the prospect of Polish independence and planned to exploit tensions between Poland, Prussia, and Russia, while tacitly approving a diplomatic attempt to reclaim Silesia and Prussian Saxony.

• Clarence Ivanov ordered a telegram sent to the Russian government so its senior officials could decide how to respond to the London negotiations and bear responsibility for the defeat.
• Wessenberg told Franz that Britain likely planned to make Central Asia independent, support Prussia’s annexation of the Baltic Region, establish an independent Poland, and block Russian expansion in the Far East.
• Franz decided Austria could accept those plans, including Polish independence, and proposed encouraging Poland and Prussia to dispute Lithuania while leaving Russia with grounds for future revenge.
• Prime Minister Felix urged Franz to reclaim Silesia and Prussian Saxony to weaken Prussia, but Franz said force was inconvenient and diplomatic success was unlikely.
• Felix argued that Austria should still demonstrate its resolve to recover the lost territories, and Franz tacitly approved the attempt.

Prussian leaders argued over how to respond to Austria’s military pressure and whether to trade territory for Vienna’s support. As the military faction gained influence, the debate exposed how territorial concessions would serve Junker landowners while threatening civilian officials and capitalists.

• McKet argued that Austria would avoid war because a conflict would draw in Russia and risk French intervention, while Roon insisted Austria might accept the Rhineland in exchange for German unification.
• Moltke proposed exchanging interests with Austria to secure its support or acquiescence, while McKet objected that concessions such as Silesia and Prussian Saxony would provoke public anger.
• The government and military reversed their earlier positions as the military faction gained power and favored a controlled territorial settlement.
• Prussian leaders considered moving people and property out of ceded lands, using legal noncooperation, and leaving Austria with little but empty territory.
• Junker nobles favored concessions because they needed workers for East Prussia and newly occupied lands, while civilian officials opposed them to protect capitalist interests.

Franz and his ministers considered Russia’s request for Austria’s support in restoring the prewar status quo and assessed the political crisis facing Alexander II. Franz predicted that Alexander would purge corrupt officials and pursue limited reforms, leaving Russia a potential long-term rival to Austria.

• Foreign Minister Wessenberg told Franz that Russia wanted Austria to support restoring the prewar status quo without territorial concessions or reparations.
• Franz rejected Russia’s request, telling the Tsarist Government to secure agreement from all parties itself or abandon the idea.
• Prime Minister Felix argued that Russia’s collapsing economy and domestic unrest meant the Tsarist Government could not continue the war.
• Franz predicted that Alexander II would purge bureaucrats, blame them for the defeat, and use the upheaval to weaken conservatives and undermine the rebellion.
• Felix warned that Russia’s conservatives would remain powerful and limit Alexander II’s reforms.
• Franz concluded that even limited reforms and industrialization could turn Russia into a major power and a serious rival to Austria.

At the London Peace Conference, Russia faced a united front of hostile countries and turned to Austria for help. Wessenberg advised Russia to secure neutral support and accept concessions on peripheral issues, leaving Clarence-Ivanov to contemplate the loss of Eastern Europe and Russia’s future revenge against Prussia.

• More than twenty countries gathered in London on April 22, 1867, where Russia’s delegation found itself opposed by an Eight-Nation Alliance and most of Europe.
• Clarence-Ivanov secretly asked Wessenberg to use Austria’s influence to improve Russia’s diplomatic position.
• Wessenberg rejected the blank Royal Bank check at first and advised Clarence-Ivanov to court Sweden-Norway, the German Confederation, Belgium, Spain, and Portugal.
• Clarence-Ivanov handed Wessenberg the check, and Wessenberg advised Russia to abandon peripheral disputes and settle the war quickly.
• Clarence-Ivanov realized Russia might have to give up territory in Eastern Europe and regarded Prussia as its foremost future enemy.

Franz weighed Austria’s response to Britain’s planned invasion of Ethiopia and ordered arms secretly sold to the Ethiopian ruler, Theodore II, so he could resist more fiercely. The chapter left Austria preparing to exploit the conflict and claim territory from Ethiopia.

• Britain established the Dominion of Canada to strengthen its influence in North America, while Austria prepared to monitor and confiscate American investments in Central America.
• Franz reviewed Ethiopia’s position as Britain moved to seize it and asked the Colonial Ministry how Austria would respond.
• Josip Jelačić said Austria planned to claim territory from Ethiopia, whose forces were greatly outmatched by Britain’s.
• Franz ordered people to secretly sell arms to Ethiopia so its resistance to Britain would intensify.

Franz saw the Ethiopian War as a chance to drain British manpower, while the London Peace Conference struggled to resolve the territorial dispute between Russia, Prussia, and Poland. Britain, France, and Austria sought an end to the war to protect their massive loans, leaving the peace negotiations deadlocked and the risk of renewed fighting in Eastern Europe high.

• Franz viewed the Ethiopian War as an opportunity to inflict heavy casualties on Britain and weaken its colonial reach.
• At the London Peace Conference, Clarence Ivanov secured armistices with several states, and Russia ended its war with the Ottoman Empire by abandoning its Caucasus claims.
• Prussia and Poland demanded Russian territory in Eastern Europe, including Lithuania, Belarus, Latvia, and parts of Ukraine, while the Tsarist Government rejected their terms.
• Britain, France, and Austria met privately, but their conflicting views on Prussia and Poland complicated efforts to weaken Russia and settle the dispute.
• Reslin sought to persuade France and Austria to join Britain in pressing for peace, as the three creditor powers feared that renewed war could turn their large loans into bad debts.