Recaps

In 1877, East Africa opened its first higher-education institutions as Constantin promoted agricultural and teacher training in Soga City and Ernst planned a medical college in First Town. The kingdom relied heavily on sending students abroad, while domestic university education remained limited.

• Constantin attended the openings of the National Agricultural College and Soga Normal School in Soga City and praised Angros for supporting agricultural education.
• Angros presented the National Agricultural College’s facilities, faculty, majors, library, and enrollment of more than seven hundred students.
• Constantin described East Africa’s top students and its selection, preparation, and overseas placement programs, which sent two thousand mainland students abroad that year.
• Ernst arranged for East Africa’s first medical college to be established in First Town.
• East Africa enrolled just over eighteen hundred students across its three higher-education institutions and planned to add universities gradually before expanding on a large scale.

Ernst explained to Li Ji why East Africa's National Higher Medical College excluded traditional medicine and challenged Chinese medicine to prove itself through scientific methods. Li Ji accepted the task of combining Chinese medicine with science, beginning a long effort to build a new medical system.

• At the National Higher Medical College, Li Ji questioned Ernst about why the school did not include Far East medicine.
• Ernst explained the rise of modern medicine and said traditional medical theories needed to be tested and supported by evidence.
• Li Ji argued that Chinese medicine also relied on observation, conjecture, and clinical practice, prompting Ernst to propose combining it with modern medicine.
• Ernst offered to establish a school for Chinese medicine if its theories could be rebuilt through experiments and evidence.
• Li Ji accepted the challenge, and Chinese medicine in East Africa began pursuing a scientific path that would require generations of scholars.

Ernst and Constantin discussed reports of French officials arriving in Mozambique aboard British ships and suspected Britain was preparing to use Portugal to test East Africa. Ernst planned a limited war against Portugal that could draw Britain into a larger conflict, leaving East Africa poised to either spare or annex the Portuguese colonies depending on Britain's actions.

• East African intelligence in Maputo reported that French officers had arrived aboard British ships and met with officials at the Governor's Mansion through an English contact.
• Ernst told Constantin that Britain was likely using Portugal to probe East Africa's military strength and that Portugal would resist because it feared losing its colonies.
• Ernst proposed taking territory from Mozambique and Angola while allowing Portugal to retain part of its colonies if Britain stayed out of the war.
• Ernst planned to annex both Portuguese colonies if Britain entered the conflict, using the war's progress as bait to draw the British into a decisive confrontation.
• Constantin questioned whether Portugal or Britain would follow Ernst's plan, and Ernst said East Africa could seize the colonies whenever it chose but still needed a major victory to strengthen its national identity and international standing.

In early 1878, Kidatu Village chief Lois announced that draft oxen would replace farming slaves as East Africa began phasing out slavery. The chapter explained the policy’s broader economic and international consequences, including the Ottoman Empire’s use of East African slaves and Romania’s break from Ottoman control during the Russo-Turkish War.

• Lois told Kidatu’s villagers that the Kingdom planned to resolve the slave issue within thirty years and had allocated the village 236 draft oxen.
• Laimi questioned replacing slaves with livestock, but Lois argued that slavery was internationally unacceptable, risky, and unsustainable.
• Lois explained that the cooperative would raise the oxen with specialists and lend them to farmers upon application.
• Lois said livestock replacement would spread from Central Province to East African crop-growing regions, while plantations would continue using some slaves.
• East Africa subsidized Arab merchants transporting slaves, and the Ottoman Empire used black slaves as laborers and soldiers in its war against Russia.
• Romania, already controlled by Sigmaringen, took advantage of the war to break away completely from the Ottoman Empire.

French instructor Dreyse urged Mozambique Governor Leiford to build an army capable of challenging East Africa, while Britain and France offered weapons and training. Leiford remained concerned about arming Black recruits and the gap between Mozambique and the German-backed East African forces.

• Dreyse criticized Mozambique’s small, poorly equipped army, and Leiford blamed Portugal’s neglect of colonial military investment.
• Dreyse proposed recruiting Black soldiers, but Leiford feared they might turn against Portuguese rule once armed.
• Dreyse said Britain and France would supply rifles and ammunition for 50,000 men, while Mozambique would provide food.
• Leiford questioned whether Black soldiers could fight and whether Mozambique could match East Africa’s weapons, but Dreyse promised French training and claimed the forces could compete.
• France supported the plan partly to weaken German influence in East Africa and potentially expand its own regional influence.

In March 1878, Ernst prepared East Africa’s Black Legion as a disposable force to stage a convincing military contest against Portugal’s planned Black army. The story left East Africa organizing up to sixty thousand Black troops, with elite units held in reserve in case the performance became a real battle.

• Britain and France encouraged Mozambique to recruit local Black soldiers, while Leiford worried that armed mixed-race descendants might challenge Portuguese control.
• East Africa transported displaced Black people to South Salzburg Province and began drilling them as a Black Legion.
• Ernst explained to Johann Sebastian that the Legion would make East Africa’s planned fight against Portugal look credible, while regular forces stayed back to prevent a defeat.
• East Africa equipped the Legion with outdated flintlocks and cold weapons, planning to put it at the front while second-line forces supervised and elite troops remained in reserve.
• Ernst ordered East Africa to organize sixty thousand Black troops, though firearms would be available for only forty thousand.

In March 1878, the Austro-Hungarian Empire occupied Bosnia while the Hohenzollern Conglomerate rapidly bought up land and stirred unrest. Belke persuaded General Ronaldinho to accept a plan to strengthen German influence and transform Bosnia, laying groundwork for the Conglomerate’s Germanization campaign.

• The Austro-Hungarian Empire sent troops into Sarajevo, and the Hohenzollern Conglomerate began acquiring land across Bosnia.
• The Conglomerate bought Timar estates cheaply and spread rumors of religious purges, prompting landowners to flee and more than thirty large-scale riots to break out.
• General Ronaldinho confronted Belke about the rumors, but Belke denied responsibility and blamed hostile Ottoman elements.
• After reading a letter from his father, Ronaldinho accepted Belke’s explanation and agreed that local people should be remolded to strengthen the Empire.
• Belke argued that Bosnian Slavs were Germans whose identities had been altered, revealing the Conglomerate’s aim to build economic control as groundwork for Germanizing Bosnia.

Ernst explained to Archduke Ferdinand how the Hohenzollern Conglomerate would use its control of Bosnian farmland to reshape the region’s population and identity. His plan left Bosnia as a potential foothold for East African influence and a future mixed-blood German people spanning Europe, Africa, and Asia.

• Ferdinand questioned whether the Hohenzollern Conglomerate could alter Bosnia’s population, and Ernst said control of farmland gave it power over local livelihoods.
• Ernst proposed driving Serbs and followers of the Arab religion out of Bosnia while turning Croats into Germans through economic pressure, fabricated history, propaganda, and company schools.
• Ferdinand raised the risk of resistance, and Ernst said the Austro-Hungarian army could favor the company while immigrants from Germany and the Far East changed Bosnia’s population.
• Ernst connected the Bosnian plan to his intentions for East Africa and the Lanfang Republic, envisioning mixed-blood Germans building influence across three continents.

Ernst considered how East Africa could build its own cultural sphere by reshaping Bosnia and the Lanfang Republic, while keeping its future interests distinct from Germany and the Far East. In Maputo, French instructor Wilson struggled to train African soldiers, whose military preparation East Africa planned to keep simple.

• Ernst viewed Bosnia and the Lanfang Republic as testing grounds for creating populations and cultures that would feel aligned with East Africa.
• Ernst saw meddling in Bosnia as a way to gain leverage over Austria-Hungary and establish East African influence in the Balkans.
• French instructor Wilson whipped disobedient African recruits in Maputo after two months of failing to teach them basic formation drills.
• The chapter described how small-scale tribal organization and limited experience with large groups hindered the recruits' ability to follow complex military training.
• East Africa planned to teach the Black Legion only to load ammunition, fire, obey orders, and advance or retreat.

East African commanders assessed Mozambique’s forces and planned to strengthen Southern Frontier Province, while British and French advisers helped Portugal devise a war strategy. The chapter ended with Portugal considering a central offensive to sever East Africa, unaware that the Central Railway could rapidly reinforce threatened fronts.

• Yalman, Svit, Felix, and Merke assessed Mozambique’s troop strength, possible attack routes, and the limits of the Ruvuma River defenses.
• East African commanders judged Southern Frontier Province likely to face an attack and proposed reinforcing its northern front while keeping the focus defensive.
• Johnson argued that Portugal should focus its offensive on South Africa, but Leiford and Clément opposed concentrating forces there.
• Clément proposed defending Maputo and the northern and southern fronts while attacking through the center to cut East Africa’s northern and southern territories apart.
• The British, French, and Portuguese overlooked East Africa’s Central Railway, which could quickly move reinforcements through its interior.

Britain warned Austria-Hungary not to interfere in the expected war between Portugal and East Africa, angering Franz, who asked how he could support East Africa. The East African Ambassador said his country was prepared to defeat Portugal and could even confront Britain, leaving Franz stunned by the scale of East Africa’s military strength.

• Clement proposed that Portugal stop fighting after taking East Africa’s central territory, while East Africa would reject such a division.
• British diplomats warned Franz not to interfere in a war between Portugal and East Africa, and Franz condemned Britain’s arrogance.
• Franz asked his advisers how Austria-Hungary could help East Africa, but they explained that Britain could block supplies and Austria-Hungary had little useful military aid to offer.
• Franz summoned the East African Ambassador, who confirmed that Britain and France were backing Portugal as a proxy against East Africa.
• The Ambassador claimed East Africa had more than two hundred thousand trained soldiers equipped with Mauser rifles, machine guns, and artillery, and said it was confident of defeating Portugal or confronting Britain.

East Africa sought Austro-Hungarian diplomatic support against Portugal and warned Britain and France that it could threaten their nearby colonies. As the powers agreed to limit outside intervention, East African intelligence identified Tete as Portugal’s likely Zambezi River staging point, where Clement prepared to advance using outdated maps.

• The East African Ambassador asked Franz to pressure Britain and France and warned that East Africa could strike their colonies if their navies supported Portugal.
• Franz agreed to consult Britain and France and involve Germany, while declining to bring Russia into the effort.
• In May 1878, Austria-Hungary, Germany, Britain, and France agreed in Paris that third countries would not enter the East Africa–Portugal war and that its scale should remain limited.
• East Africa tracked Portuguese preparations in Angola and Mozambique and identified Tete as a likely military front from irregularities in coastal shipping data.
• Clement described Tete as Portugal’s forward base for splitting East Africa along the Zambezi, then questioned whether Portuguese maps of the interior were reliable.

East African reconnaissance cavalry discovered Portugal's troop buildup in Tete and carried the intelligence back toward Songo. Portuguese General Clement learned from Dares that Songo held only a few hundred troops and planned to seize it as the opening move in a wider campaign.

• East African reconnaissance cavalry spotted Portuguese movements in Tete and headed back to Songo with the news.
• The chapter described how East Africa easily gathered intelligence in Mozambique while Portuguese agents struggled to infiltrate East Africa.
• Portuguese troops crowded outside Tete as East African cavalry observed them unnoticed and rode away.
• Clement questioned Dares about East Africa and learned that Songo had roughly two or three hundred troops.
• Clement relaxed after hearing Songo's estimated strength and planned to capture the outpost, control the Zambezi, and isolate East African forces.

Portuguese General Clement confronted General Kevindak over Mozambique’s failure to deliver supplies for the campaign against East Africa. Clement ordered supplies brought to Tete within a week and planned a limited attack on Songo while the main force waited.

• Clement questioned Kevindak about the delayed supplies, and Kevindak blamed Mozambique’s unprepared logistics and lack of available boats.
• Clement demanded that Mozambique deliver the full amount of food and ammunition to Tete within one week, warning Kevindak not to let the colony shortchange the army.
• Kevindak agreed to send Clement’s demand to Maputo, while Clement insisted the order be enforced.
• Clement decided to send one thousand men to seize the Songo outpost and keep the main force back until supplies arrived.

Klee struggled with the incompetent Portuguese commander Rod as their slow-moving force approached the Songo outpost. When they finally arrived, the fortifications proved too strong for a direct assault, leaving Klee to organize siege equipment while he despaired over the campaign.

• Rod ignored Klee’s requests to speed up the march, insisting the troops should conserve their strength as they advanced toward Songo.
• The chapter explained that Mozambique had placed poorly trained Portuguese officers like Rod in command, while its stronger forces and navy remained separate from the colonial army.
• After six days, Rod’s vanguard reached Songo and found a large outpost surrounded by trenches and protected by a high wall.
• Klee warned that even a much smaller force could hold the outpost and said they needed to build ladders and other siege equipment before attacking.
• Rod left the preparations to Klee, who grew more convinced that Mozambique’s war against East Africa was doomed.

Mozambican troops under Kerry tried to prepare ladders and assault Songo Outpost, while East African defenders obeyed orders to hold position and conceal their machine guns. After the Portuguese attack failed under rifle fire and the Black soldiers began retreating, Kerry halted the assault and admitted they needed heavy weapons or an East African counterattack.

• Kerry ordered his men to finish making ladders overnight and attack Songo Outpost the next morning.
• The 512th Division reinforced Songo Outpost and ordered its defenders to hold off the Portuguese until the main force arrived in three days.
• Songo's defenders hid their four machine guns so the Portuguese would not be scared away before East Africa could use the Black Legion against them.
• The Portuguese launched an attack, but Songo's defenders used their walls and superior rifles to suppress the advancing troops.
• Kerry shot a Black soldier who tried to retreat, but repeated attacks failed and the Portuguese lost nearly a hundred men.
• Kerry halted the assault and told Rhodes they needed heavy firepower or an East African force to come out and fight.

After two days of failing to breach Songo Fortress, Kerry and Rhodes agreed to stop wasting lives and let the battle stagnate. Portuguese and East African forces settled into a sit-down war, though the East African soldiers remained eager to attack.

• Kerry failed to break through Songo Fortress and asked Rhodes for advice.
• Rhodes suggested using black soldiers as expendable attackers, but Kerry argued that their trained troops were too costly to waste.
• Rhodes explained that he had little personal stake in Mozambique and would return to shoemaking if the colony were lost.
• Kerry accepted Rhodes's view that they should avoid further effort and slowly wear down East Africa.
• The Portuguese stopped firing, and both sides settled into a standoff while the East African Army held back its desire to charge.

Britain and France monitored the Western Indian Ocean with a joint naval deployment to support Portugal, while East Africa answered with exercises alongside Germany and the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The rival fleets displayed their strength, and the chapter ended with Archduke Ferdinand defending East Africa’s naval position by citing its exposed geography.

• British Rear Admiral Frank and French Rear Admiral Bellon assessed the Portuguese and East African fleets, concluding that Portugal’s experienced sailors could not make up for its outdated ships.
• The chapter contrasted East Africa’s military investment and growing navy with the United States’ neglected postwar fleet.
• East Africa held a joint naval exercise with the Austro-Hungarian Empire and Germany, deploying five ironclads alongside their two and one.
• Spee complained that Germany’s navy received too little support, and Lieutenant General Claire replied that the Austro-Hungarian Navy had fewer new ships.
• Archduke Ferdinand argued that East Africa’s geography and maritime threats justified its naval development.

East Africa’s main force reached Songo ahead of Portugal’s advance force, forcing Keli to retreat and exposing that the Portuguese had relied on false intelligence. The East African army then struggled to manage the exhausted, disorderly Black Legion, and Merke prepared machine guns to prevent its soldiers from retreating.

• East Africa’s main force arrived at Songo Fortress, prompting Keli to withdraw toward Tete City with Rod’s unit.
• Keli told Clément that Songo was larger and better defended than expected and that East African reinforcements had arrived in overwhelming numbers.
• Clément spared Keli’s unit punishment but ordered it not to retreat or surrender without his command.
• Merke assessed the Black Legion’s disorder after its forced march and delayed an attack while the troops adapted.
• Merke ordered machine guns prepared to shoot Black Legion soldiers who tried to retreat during battle.

Ernst and Constantin reviewed Portugal’s main attack routes and East Africa’s preparations, while Ernst planned a counteroffensive to seize northern Mozambique and the shores of Lake Malawi. East African forces were ready to advance south along the Ruvuma River as the war entered its next phase.

• Ernst explained that Portuguese forces were concentrated around Lake Malawi and the Zambezi River basin, aiming to cut East Africa off from its interior.
• Constantin questioned whether East Africa could defend the area between Lake Malawi and Lake Tanganyika, and Ernst described the elite troops and terrain protecting it.
• Ernst told Constantin that troops had reached the Songo outpost and that the 512th Division stood ready to reinforce the Black soldiers if needed.
• Ernst confirmed that Portuguese defenses south of the Ruvuma River were weak and ordered East African troops there to move south while Black soldiers held the Portuguese main force in the northwest.
• Ernst planned to use the war to seize northern Mozambique, including the shores of Lake Malawi.

Portuguese forces faced East African reinforcements near the Songo stronghold and chose to test their defenses rather than retreat. While Black troops fought on the southern fronts, East African forces crossed the Ruvuma River and advanced into northern Mozambique, where hostile tribes resisted them.

• Merke told East African generals that Portuguese forces had camped near the Songo stronghold, while Clement decided to block the plateau passage instead of retreating.
• East African soldiers corrected the Black Legion’s formations and trained them to advance and fire in ranks.
• Clement attacked near the Songo stronghold, where Black troops exchanged inaccurate musket volleys with Portuguese forces until the 512th Division commander sent cavalry against their flank.
• East African and Mozambican Black troops fought on the eastern shore of Lake Malawi and in the Zambezi basin while the regular East African Army remained in reserve.
• East African troops crossed the Ruvuma River and divided into three directions to advance into northern Mozambique.
• East African forces massacred tribes that resisted and drove other native tribes southward.

East African forces overwhelmed Portuguese Angola while advancing into Mozambique, prompting Britain to assess East Africa’s military strength and consider mediation. Britain decided to mediate before Portugal lost both colonies, hoping to preserve Portuguese power in Africa.

• East Africa’s Black Legion fought Mozambican forces to a costly standstill, while its regular divisions routed the Portuguese army in Angola.
• The Governor of Angola learned that German forces were approaching Luanda and ordered preparations to flee by ship.
• East African divisions captured Luanda, and the Governor escaped to Cabinda to continue resisting.
• East African forces tightened their pincer around Mozambique after occupying its northern territory, leaving Governor Leiford worried about the colony’s lack of troops.
• British officials estimated that East Africa had committed over one hundred thousand soldiers across both fronts and discussed the forces Britain would need to expand Cape Town northward.
• Britain chose to mediate the war to preserve Portugal’s African strength and avoid having to negotiate the return of Angola and Mozambique later.

East Africa agreed to British-supervised mediation with Portugal, but Ernst and Constantin insisted that Portugal pay heavily for starting the war. After negotiations in Dar es Salaam, Portugal ceded the southern third of Angola and the territory north of the Zambezi River in Mozambique, and aligned itself more firmly with Britain.

• Ernst told Constantin that Britain would not allow East Africa to take both Portuguese colonies, but East Africa should demand substantial territorial compensation.
• East Africa agreed to mediation, and Svit demanded all of Angola and half of Mozambique at the negotiations in Dar es Salaam.
• Yadis rejected East Africa's terms, while Hull defended Portugal and urged both sides to return to their prewar positions.
• Svit accused Portugal of provoking the war and suggested outside powers had helped build up Mozambique's army; the French representative called for compromise.
• East Africa applied military pressure during bargaining, and Portugal agreed to cede southern Angola and the land north of the Zambezi River in Mozambique.
• Portugal accepted the territorial losses and became even more firmly aligned with Britain.

After the East Portugal War exposed East Africa’s military strength, European countries reassessed it and sought closer diplomatic ties. East Africa welcomed new embassies but divided them among three cities according to its interests and security concerns.

• Will rejected The Times’s claim that Africa would become an Africa for Africans, arguing that the continent had many foreign powers with influence.
• Portugal’s new government promised to recover its lost territory and sanction East Africa, while European observers concluded that East Africa was a military power stronger than Portugal.
• Italy and Belgium sent diplomats to Dar es Salaam city to discuss relations with East Africa, and the Netherlands followed to protect its interests near the East Indies.
• East Africa assigned some embassies to Dar es Salaam city, while Ernst placed Germany, Austria, Romania, Sweden, the Far East Empire, and others in First Town.
• East Africa maintained a third embassy district on Zanzibar Island for countries including the Ottoman Empire, the United States, and Japan.

German Ambassador Klein toured First Town and praised East Africa’s development, then discussed the prospect of a German, Austro-Hungarian, and East African alliance with Von der Leyen. East Africa remained uninterested in choosing sides and planned to build its strength before engaging in international rivalries.

• Klein toured First Town with Von der Leyen and remarked that East Africa’s cities rivaled German cities in prosperity.
• Von der Leyen downplayed East Africa’s development, while Klein argued that its coastal cities formed a growing cluster of commercial and industrial centers.
• Klein proposed that Germany, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and East Africa could unite to increase German influence in the world.
• Von der Leyen warned that Britain, France, and Russia would constrain Germany and that major changes to the world order would take decades.
• Klein and Von der Leyen discussed an alliance, but East Africa showed little interest in choosing sides and intended to keep developing its national strength.